|
RDL Homepage |
Table of Contents |
Document Information |
Download Instructions |
Lesson 1
THE PURPOSE OF, AND PLANNING PROCEDURES FOR, RETROGRADE OPERATIONS; AND THE NATURE OF THE SOVIET THREAT TO U.S. FORCES CONDUCTING RETROGRADE OPERATIONS
Lesson Description:
This lesson discusses the purposes of, and planning considerations for, retrograde operations. The battalion task force conducts these operations as part of offensive and defensive operations.
Terminal Learning Objective:
| Action: | Identify the purposes of, and planning considerations for, retrograde operations; and the nature of the Soviet threat to U.S. forces conducting retrograde operations. |
| Condition: | Given the subcourse material contained in this lesson. |
| Standard: | The student will demonstrate his comprehension and knowledge of the task by identifying the purposes of, and planning considerations for, retrograde operations; and the nature of the Soviet threat to U.S. forces conducting retrograde operations. |
| References: | The material in this lesson was derived from the following publications: |
INTRODUCTION
A retrograde operation is an organized movement to the rear or away from the enemy. It may be either forced or voluntary. In either case, the higher commander must approve it.
Forces conduct retrograde operations to harass, to exhaust, to resist, to delay, and to damage the enemy. Such operations gain time, avoid combat under unfavorable conditions, or draw the enemy into an unfavorable position.
Retrograde actions are also favorable in maneuver to reposition forces, to shorten lines of communications, or to permit the use of the force elsewhere.
Learning Event 1:
IDENTIFY THE PURPOSES OF, AND PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS FOR, RETROGRADE OPERATIONS
Because of the similarities between defensive and retrograde operations in planning procedures and considerations, this lesson will begin with a brief discussion of the defense. This will provide a transitional context which will facilitate the understanding of the main subject of the subcourse Retrograde Operations.
PLANNING FOR THE DEFENSE
Planning for defense begins when a commander receives a mission to defend or perceives a need to do so. The commander then formulates a plan for defense which meets the requirements of the mission. The commander is guided in the design of his plan by the factors of METT-T, and the considerations he develops in his estimate of the situation.
METT-T
As mentioned above, METT-T is the guide used by commanders in designing defensive plans. The elements of METT-T are:
Mission.
Enemy.
Terrain and weather.
Troops.
Time available.
Each element will be discussed separately.
Mission. The first consideration in planning the defense is the mission. It defines the area to be defended or the force to be defeated. It must be analyzed in terms of the higher commander's overall scheme.
Defending broad frontages forces the commander to accept gaps. Defending shallow sectors or positions reduces flexibility and requires the commander to fight well forward. Narrow frontages and deep sectors increase the elasticity of the defense and the number of options available. In planning his defense, the commander also considers subsequent missions.
Enemy. In planning the defense, the commander must consider the enemy's doctrine, habits, equipment, and probable courses of action. Defending commanders must look at themselves and their sectors through the enemy commander's eyes. They must look for vulnerabilities that the enemy may exploit and must act to counter them. They should also identify probable enemy objectives and approaches to them.
- In a defense against an echelons enemy, they must know how soon follow-on forces can join the attack. If enemy follow-on forces can be delayed, the attack may be defeated in detail one echelon at a time. If the defender can force the enemy to commit follow-on echelons sooner than planned, the attacker's timetable can be upset. This will create exploitable gaps between the committed and subsequent echelons.
Terrain and Weather. The defending force must exploit any aspect of the terrain that impairs enemy momentum or makes it difficult for him to mass or maneuver. Defenders must engage the attacker at points where the terrain puts him at the greatest disadvantage. Controlling key terrain is vital to a successful defense. Some terrain may be so significant to the defense that its loss would prove decisive.
Weather and visibility affect how defenders organize the ground. Commanders at all levels must take these effects into account as they analyze terrain. The defending commander should use man-made obstacles to improve the natural structure of terrain. This will slow or canalize enemy movement and protect friendly positions and maneuver.
Troops. The commander must also consider the nature of his force. The mobility, protection, morale, and training of his troops determine to some extent how he will defend. Armor and mechanized forces can move on the battlefield even under artillery fire, while infantry cannot. Light infantry can fight effectively in close terrain and urban areas which limit mounted units.
Differences in mobility, training, and leadership make some units more suitable for some missions than for others. Commanders should consider the relative strengths of their units and personnel. Skill in night combat, infiltration, long-range fires, or air assault operation gives the defender an advantage over the attacker. The commander should exploit these skills in designing his defense.
Time Available. The amount of time to prepare is a crucial factor in organizing a defense. For an effective defense, time must be available for:
Conducting reconnaissance.
Occupation of positions.
Fortifying the ground.
Fire planning.
Installing obstacles.
Coordination of support.
To gain time for the organization of the main battle area (MBA), the commander may order a delay by a covering force. Lack of time may cause a commander to maintain a larger-than-normal reserve force or to accept greater risks than usual. Time is a critical element for the defender and cannot be wasted. Small units must be capable of defense with minimal preparation, but commanders must recognize that strong defenses take time to organize and prepare.
Defensive Planning steps
Using the elements of METT-T, the commander develops his plans for the defensive operation. The defensive planning process can be simplified by following a seven-step guide. The commander can use these steps with the troop-leading procedures and the decision-making process to make and refine the tentative plan. These steps are:
Analyze the brigade mission and begin preparations.
Analyze enemy avenues of approach.
Select tentative positions and tasks.
Allocate forces.
Task organize and assign missions.
Integrate combat support.
Finish the plan.
Analyze the Brigade Mission and Begin Preparations. The defensive planning process begins with a complete analysis of the brigade order to identify both the brigade commander's intent and mission of tasks the task force is expected to execute. As soon as possible, the task force commander gathers his staff, is briefed on the combat status of the task force, and gives planning guidance to his staff. He issues instructions or approves recommendations from the staff. He may direct beginning preparations of key obstacles or the establishment of security.
Planning the effective use of time to complete the plan is especially important. The warning order is issued as early as possible. It includes, as a minimum the nature of the mission, the time the mission starts or earliest time of movement, and the time and place of issuance of orders. Additional information is sent to the units as soon as it becomes available.
Analyze Enemy Avenues of Approach. The S2 identifies mounted, dismounted, and aerial approaches into the battalion's sector, both from the front and the flank. He does this by first identifying enemy mobility corridors two levels down. He then combines these corridors to determine likely avenues of approach. Regimental and sometimes battalion-sized mounted avenues of approach are normally identified by the brigade. The battalion refines this analysis to determine all battalion- and company-sized mounted and dismounted avenues of approach. They identify locations along the avenues of approach where the enemy is most vulnerable. They also identify key terrain which dominates the defensive area.
Select Tentative Positions and Tasks. The battalion task force commander selects terrain within the battle position (BP) or throughout the sector for:
Positioning antiarmor weapons and/or obstacles.
Positioning maneuver elements to place fires onto the enemy avenues of approach, or to counterattack.
Blocking the avenues of approach where they are most restricted.
The commander wargames positions down to the platoon level. One critical consideration in selecting positions is how the positions appear to the enemy. Commanders at all levels should reconnoiter friendly defensive positions from the avenue of approach. They should check the positions from the enemy's viewpoint. They avoid selection of positions that are too obvious, such as prominent hill masses and/or tree lines as defensive positions, if possible. They reconnoiter friendly positions and counterattack routes before and after occupation, from the enemy's point of view.
Allocate Forces. Allocate forces based on the analysis of the avenue of approach, potential positions, and predicted enemy actions. Select the best areas to defeat the attack consistent with the brigade commander's intent. Determine the best combination of positions to stop, counterattack, and destroy the enemy in all of those areas. Then select the positions in depth to meet the need for mutual support and coverage of all avenues of approach.
Allocate forces to the positions selected. Other positions will become on-order missions for units. Allocate tanks, Bradley infantry fighting vehicles (BIFVs), and improved TOW vehicles (ITVs) to positions selected for placing antiarmor fire on the enemy. Position tanks and some infantry to counterattack. Allocate dismounted mechanized infantry and obstacles to positions which block approaches in restricted terrain with short-range fields of fire.
Select the correct combination to break up the attacker's formation and stop the enemy in a "killing zone." Here, he is exposed to antiarmor fires from multiple directions.
Task Organize and Assign Missions. Group the tentative platoon positions into company team-sized battle positions or sectors. Assign a company or company team to each position or sector. Determine the missions each company team is to accomplish from these positions. Also, determine the requirements for maneuver of forces and fires as the battle develops.
Integrate Combat Support. Ensure that fire support, air defense artillery (ADA), mobility, countermobility, and survivability systems are planned to support this scheme of maneuver. Supporting fires are planned to disorganize, slow, and disrupt the enemy's advance; to assist in blocking attacks; and to cover maneuver. Finalize engineer support for construction of obstacles to canalize and hold the enemy in areas where he is most vulnerable. Also, plan obstacles to protect defensive positions form assault. Priority is given to the construction of fighting positions to protect the fighting force and to the improvement of routes needed to execute the scheme of maneuver.
Finish the Plan. The concept of the operation is now complete. Now the commander and his staff must determine the additional taskings and coordination needed to make the concept work. Actions must be taken to compensate for any disadvantages associated with the chosen course of action. They must develop plans for fire control, combat service support, surveillance, obstacle emplacement, and communications support. Also, they must determine if any additional control and coordination measures are required.
The above paragraphs have explained the steps in planning a defense. Let's now take each step of planning the defense and break it down in detail.
STEP 1: ANALYZE THE BRIGADE MISSION AND BEGIN PREPARATIONS
Battalion task force missions are given by brigade orders- warning orders (WOs), fragmentary orders (FRAGOs), or operations orders (OPORDs). These orders tell the task force:
What it is to do.
Where to do it.
When to do it.
What attachments to do it with.
How it will contribute to the overall operation.
How brigade maneuver and combat support forces will be synchronized.
How combat service support will be provided.
The initial defense orders will often be written, with detailed, well-defined control and coordination measures and contingency plans. They will normally be given face-to- face. Orders given during the battle may be fragmentary and are often given over secure radio.
AirLand Battle defensive doctrine emphasizes maneuver during the battle to attack enemy weaknesses. Therefore, careful analysis of the brigade order is necessary. In addition to analysis of the specified and implied tasks, the commander must determine the intent and the resultant maneuver required to accomplish the intent.
Examples of key questions which impact on task force planning follow:
Is decisive engagement to be accepted or is freedom of maneuver to be maintained?
How are the brigade and division going to create enemy weaknesses? How and with what forces are they going to attack it?
How are counterattacks to be coordinated with, or supported by, forward forces?
How is the task force to tie-in with adjacent units?
Is there key terrain which the overall scheme requires to be retained?
Defensive Missions
The general defensive missions are to defend and to counterattack.
Defend. The task force may be required to:
Defend in sector. This mission given the task force the mission of defeating the attacker forward of the rear boundary. The task force may fight the battle utilizing the entire depth of the sector. This must be consistent with the intent of the brigade commander and the need to tie-in with adjacent units.
Defend a battle position. Battle positions are general locations from which the task forces can be ordered to block an avenue of approach. Other uses for battle positions are for firing into an assigned area, retaining key terrain, or performing other assigned tasks.
Defend a strong point. A strong point is an extensively fortified battle position which holds or controls key terrain or blocks an avenue of approach.
Delay. A delay is a defensive operation where the main intent is to slow the enemy's advance. A delay is normally conducted in sector. It may be unrestricted with maximum possible delay while avoiding decisive engagement. The delay may also be restricted. This is where the enemy advance must be delayed for a specified length of time even If decisive engagement is necessary to accomplish the delay.
(Note: Delay is a retrograde operation which will be discussed later in greater detail.)
Counterattack. The types of counterattack operations are:
Counterattack by fire. This involves movement to a position to destroy the attacker by fire. Battle positions and routes are normally assigned.
Counterattack by fire and movement. The intent is to close with and destroy the enemy or to capture key terrain. Offensive control measures are assigned. Objectives may be assigned for orientation purposes only.
Preparation
Levels of preparation for defense and counterattack missions are to occupy, prepare, and recon.
Occupy. In positions initially occupied, the company team must accomplish all actions necessary to execute the mission assigned. However, preparation and recon of on-order missions often must be done concurrently if a dynamic battle of maneuver is planned.
Prepare. The element must accomplish all actions necessary to prepare for execution of the assigned mission. This may include (depending on the mission assigned):
Full planning, coordination, and rehearsals for counterattacks by fire and movement.
Construction of firing positions and routes.
Emplacement of target reference points (TRPs).
Development of fire plans.
Selection of security positions.
Emplacement of hasty protective obstacles.
Clearance of fields of fire.
Prestocking of ammunition and supplies.
Construction of individual fighting positions.
Developing the final protective fire (FPF) plan.
Emplacement of wire communications.
"Prepare" missions are normally critical to the defense. A unit assigned a "prepare" mission is expected to maintain security on the position and routes to it. Rapid movement and execution are vital to the success of the mission.
Recon. This level involves the complete coordination and planning for the mission. Leaders down to the platoon level, if possible, recon the locations. The leaders select and mark positions, routes, locations for security, overwatch positions, and objectives. They also select locations for prestock and supplies, obstacles, occupation forces, and the attack on the objective. Movement and other actions are coordinated with other elements of the task force.
Other Tasks
Besides the basic missions, numerous other tasks are specified or implied for the task force to accomplish. Examples could be assisting the passage of covering forces or security forces, or providing a security force. They must also be prepared to detach elements or receive attachments as required. Other requirements may include preparing obstacles, performing surveillance, or conducting intelligence missions.
STEP 2: ANALYZE ENEMY AVENUES OF APPROACH
The battalion must determine all battalion and company-sized avenues of approach. Mounted approaches (those that support movement by armored units in formation) and dismounted avenues of approach are identified.
The characteristics of mounted and dismounted approaches are identified below.
| MOUNTED AVENUES OF APPROACH | DISMOUNTED AVENUES OF APPROACH |
| Few restrictions to movement. | Many restrictions to mounted movement. |
| Good overwatch positions. | Short field of fire. |
| Cover and concealment. | Short range observation. |
| Facilitate deployment. | Considerable cover and concealment. |
Identify all routes that enemy armored units may use. Also, identify roads or trails which provide cover and concealment, seen though they do not allow deployment, as secondary avenues of approach. The enemy may use them to infiltrate around or bypass the defenders.
Evaluating Avenues of Approach
Analyze all avenues of approach from the enemy's point of view. The following considerations must be taken into account when determining avenues of approach:
Maneuver Space. How many armored vehicles can deploy and move down the avenue of approach?
Trafficability. How fast can a unit move? Soil trafficability, weather, and ruggedness of terrain are the primary impactors.
Cover and Concealment. Rolling terrain which allows covered movement, or any terrain which allows covered movement without greatly reducing speed, is ideal for armored attacks.
Observation and Fields of Fire. The attacker does not want to be exposed to long-range antiarmor fires. The presence of overwatch positions suitable for tank, antitank guided missile (ATGM), or self-propelled (SP) artillery is desirable.
Key and/or Decisive Terrain. Avenues of approach which allow the attacker to quickly gain control or avoid the effects of key terrain are desirable.
Length of Exposure. Armored forces normally use column formations to move as close to the defender as possible before deploying into assault formations. This minimizes exposure while maintaining control and speed of movement. Avenues of approach which allow rapid, covered movement to such assault positions facilitate these tactics.
Chokepoints and Natural Obstacles. Streams, gullies banked railroads and roads, or any other feature which limits the attacker's ability to deploy or move rapidly.
Mountainous terrain.
Slopes over 60 percent angle.
Escapements (railroad tracks or highways on a steep fill over 1-1/2 meters high).
Ravines, gullies, streams, or ditches over 5 meters wide.
Rivers, streams, or canals over 1-1/2 meters deep or with steep banks or soft bottoms.
Swamps and marshes over 1 meter deep.
Forests or jungles with trees 8 inches in diameter, or 20 percent slopes with trees as small as 4 inches in diameter. Tree stumps 18 inches high are obstacles.
Snow over 1 meter deep.
Railroads.
Built-up areas.
Obstacles such as those listed above lower the value of an avenue of approach to the attacker.
Limited Visibility Effects. Modern battlefields will normally be obscured by the effects of smoke, dust, and fog, as well as darkness. During such periods, road, ridge lines, and other features which facilitate navigation increase the value of an avenue of approach.
Figure 1 shows the variations between avenues of approach during daylight and during night/reduced visibility.
Close Air Support (CAS) and Attack Helicopters. Consider avenues of approach for enemy air formations. Considerations include:
| ATTACK HELICOPTER | CLOSE AIR SUPPORT |
| Hill masses/woods to mask approaches. | Generally broad and wide. |
| Permits standoff (2000-5000 m) | Avoids or minimizes overflight. |
| Avoids overflight. |
Attack helicopter and close air support use roads, mountains, towns, and rivers as navigational aids. Consider these when planning enemy air support avenues of approach.
Vulnerable Areas. From this analysis, identify vulnerable areas along the avenues of approach. These may include:
Areas where an armored formation's speed and deployment are limited while it is exposed to antiarmor fires.
Areas where a dismounted formation is exposed while moving along its avenue of approach.
Areas where the formation must be broken up and exposed to counterattack.
Also identify key and decisive terrain. This is terrain which overwatches the avenues of approach. This terrain, if occupied by the enemy, would allow him to dominate the defender.
STEPS 3/4. SELECT TENTATIVE POSITIONS AND TASKS; ALLOCATE FORCES
Step 3 (Select Tentative Positions and Tasks) and Step 4 (Allocate Forces) are accomplished as the commander makes his tentative plan. This plan is based on the initial analysis of the terrain and continues during the wargaming process and physical reconnaissance. The result is a scheme of maneuver upon which the plan is based.
Using each element in its best role is the key to completing these steps. Task force commanders select positions for elements down to platoon level. To properly select these positioning characteristics of each system.
The selected position must provide for an integrated defense. Those selected must provide at least some coverage for all potential approaches in proportion to the danger of the approach. The combination selected must provide mutual support. That is, the selected position should act to generally protect the flanks and rear of the other positions. Also, the position should facilitate the shifting of fires and forces to meet enemy actions during the battle.
Positioning Armor Company/Teams and the Antitank Company
Tanks, improved TOW vehicles (ITVs), cavalry fighting vehicles (CFVS), and the Bradley infantry fighting vehicle (BIFV) are all positioned to fire based on the same considerations. In defensive operations against armored attacks, the defense is organized around these weapon systems. The task force commander organizes and assigns positions to company/team and the antitank company with the following considerations.
Dispersion. Disperse antiarmor units laterally and in depth to reduce the enemy's ability to suppress. This also allows the antiarmor unit to hit the enemy from multiple directions with a heavy volume of continuous fire.
Prevention of Detection and/or Suppression. Place antiarmor units in positions where cover and concealment are available. Avoid obvious terrain and use hide positions when available (figure 2).
Flanking Fire. Flanking fires are far more effective than frontal fires against a moving attacker. You would normally pick primary positions that will allow flanking fires from defilade or terrain-masked positions. However, you should also consider positioning of antiarmor weapons for long-range engagements.
Security. Employ antiarmor weapons along covered routes where infantry positioning, patrolling, and operations can provide security from enemy attacks.
Maneuver to Concentrate fires. Make provisions to allow the maneuver of units to the avenues of approach being used by the attacker. Use on-order positions and/or sectors of fire and positioning in depth. Covered routes are required.
Transition to Limited Visibility. An attacking enemy will frequently use smoke and suppressive fire to create limited visibility conditions. Positioning must allow rapid transition to a limited visibility defense.
Routes. Covered routes must be available to allow movement in and between positions and for movement against the enemy.
Missions for Tanks, ITVs, BIFVs, and CFVs
Tanks have the greatest battlefield mobility of any task force weapons systems. They have the best capacity to reposition and counterattack by fire. They are the key element in counterattacks by fire and movement. In the counterattack, they have a faster rate of fire and do not have the tracking time consideration of the TOW. Always use tanks to cover the most dangerous avenues of approach and areas where terrain will limit the enemy's time of exposure.
ITVs provide long-range lethal antiarmor fires but are limited by their rate-of-fire and time-of-flight considerations. Position ITVs to maximize their standoff capacity. This is normally in flanking positions or relatively open areas which allow tracking. From alternate and supplemental positions, they may be used as "sniper" weapons for destroying enemy recon or advance guard elements. Firing from these positions prevents disclosure of the defender's primary positions.
BIFVs and CFVs are normally used to provide TOW and 25mm fires. However, you must also consider the need to link up with the dismounted elements. Fighting with the dismounted team on board increases its vulnerability to loss if the BIFV is hit by antiarmor fire. The BIFV is the BMP (Soviet amphibious infantry combat vehicle) killer on the battlefield and should be positioned accordingly. The scheme of maneuver should enhance the standoff, maneuverability, and night fighting advantage of the BIFV over the BMP. Therefore, the normal employment of the BIFV in the defense is with the fighting vehicle element under platoon control.
Positioning Dismounted Elements
Battle positions (BPs) for dismounted infantry are chosen to hold key terrain or to block dismounted or mounted avenues of approach. Dismounted battle positions should be on terrain which prohibits the enemy from using an armored assault across it. The position should be protected from the fires of an armored assault or overwatching vehicles. It should also facilitate the construction and camouflage of fighting positions.
Restricted wooded, urban, or broken terrain is normally chosen. Do not position the dismounted infantry at the forward edge of such terrain; it will not provide sufficient protection from the fire power of armored formations.
When good infantry terrain is not available, use reverse slope positioning as protection against long-range fires. Construction of obstacles, minefields, and strong fighting positions is necessary to allow the infantry to hold this terrain.
As mentioned earlier, BIFVs may be positioned to overwatch the dismounted elements, but are more often assigned separate missions of covering an area. Routes should be available to allow dismounted infantry and the BIFV elements to rejoin.
Missions for Dismounted Elements
In defensive operations, the infantry fights dismounted to allow the commander to maximize the combat power of both the BIFV and dismounted elements. Infantry defensive missions are to:
Defend designated positions against determined enemy mounted and dismounted attack.
Provide security by patrolling, establishing operations, antiarmor ambushes, and roadblocks on secondary approaches.
Emplace obstacles, close lanes or gaps in the obstacles, and to clear fields of fire.
Destroy enemy armored vehicles in designated engagements areas with DRAGON fire.
Missions for Attack Helicopters
Attack helicopters may occasionally be under the operations control (OPCON) of the battalion. Normally, this will be limited to a specific mission or for a specified time period. The normal mission of helicopters is to destroy enemy armored vehicles with antiarmor fire. Attack helicopters are normally given engagement areas or sectors of fire, and target priorities.
STEP 5. TASK ORGANIZE AND ASSIGN MISSIONS
The task force commander defines his scheme of maneuver by assigning missions to company teams. He task organizes to give each team sufficient assets. He allocates battle positions or sectors with specific tasks to do in each. Before assigning BPs or sectors, he considers possible engagement areas, ways to orient company team fires, key terrain to be defended, and counterattack missions. The task force commander must determine whether or not each subordinate company team will accept decisive engagement. A unit is decisively engaged when it has lost its freedom to maneuver or extricate itself. In the absence of outside assistance, the action must be fought to the conclusion and either won or lost with the forces on hand. The commander must establish clear priorities (occupy, prepare, recon) for the preparation of subsequent missions. He uses execution matrixes to amplify and simplify preparation of instructions.
Allocating Space
The task force allocates space to subordinate company teams using battle positions and sectors. A battle position is a general location enclosed by boundaries. A sector has boundaries only to the flanks and rear. In a sector defense, the company team must tie in with adjacent units at the coordination point. This tie-in may be relinquished only with permission.
Whether assigning battle positions or sectors, the commander ensures that company teams have sufficient room to position weapon systems. They must also have room to disperse and hide elements from enemy direct and indirect fires an observation. As a guideline, 150 meters between ITVs, BFVs, and tanks is desirable in open terrain. Sufficient room for supplementary and alternate positions is also necessary.
In allocating space, the commander considers the type of terrain necessary for protection, dispersion, and maneuver. He must consider reverse slopes, wooded terrain, route, and other such features in making his decision.
Assigning Missions
In assigning missions of holding or preparing to hold terrain, the commander considers the fact that considerable time (4-8 hours) is required.
If there are more critical initial missions for the combat elements available, a company team may be assigned to a reserve position and assigned on-order missions. Company teams can also be ordered to be prepared to attach a platoon to other teams or receive platoons as reinforcements.
Planning for use of combat forces also includes identifying maneuver tasks. Defensive battles by tank and mechanized task forces are fought capitalizing on the maneuver capability of the vehicle. Maneuver is used to place these elements in position to attack enemy weaknesses. This may be either by using direct fires (counterattack by fire) or actual closing with and destroying him (counterattack by fire and movement). Maneuver is also used to disengage company teams. This allows the repositioning of elements to put them into a better position to defeat the enemy.
The task force commander assigns subordinate teams battle positions as they facilitate coordination of fires and maneuver against the enemy. However, sectors for forward teams are considered enclose terrain. In close terrain, the ability to mass direct fires and maneuver forces is limited when:
The primary threat is dismounted infantry.
Complete coverage of the entire front is required.
The terrain forms multiple, distinct, small (battalion or company) avenues of approach; assigning company sectors would facilitate allocation of forces to these approaches.
Whichever control measure is used, the mission that the company team is expected to accomplish is specified, and guidance on the commander's intent is given. Subordinates must clearly see how the battle is to be fought and their roles in it. Included would be fire control measures to assign areas to be covered by fire, and requirements for obstacle emplacements and security (if a decisive engagement is to be accepted). The commander must determine the priorities for on-order missions and assign the level of preparation (occupy, prepare, or recon) for each battle position.
Success of the defense involves the rapid maneuver of forces to attack the enemy's flanks and rear. At task force level, this will involve counterattacks, disengagement, and reinforcement. Maneuver also serves to confuse the enemy; an example is occupying positions from which you have no intent of fighting a battle. As the enemy approaches, the team disengages and moves to a new position. This presents a new defense and a problem to the attacker.
Maneuvering Forces Against Enemy Armor
Maneuvering forces against an attacking enemy armored formation requires preparation. Normally, the attacker has the advantage of picking the location and the timing of the attack. This gives him the momentum and the element of surprise. The task force commander must plan, coordinate, and prepare for the maneuver to the extent that time allows. Even a few minutes saved by such actions can be a major factor in winning or losing a fast-moving battle. The commander must:
Determine Areas of Weaknesses. Consider what the enemy's problems will be as he tries to advance. In order to maintain momentum, an attacker is forced to accept weaknesses such as gaps in mutual support, open flanks, or lack of deployment. Any or all of these situations can create opportunities for the defenders.
Position Forces in Depth. Forces initially uncommitted are easier and faster to maneuver than forward forces which might be initially engaged by fixing or supporting attacks. Disengagement of forces, even from light contact, is a difficult operation for the company team.
See the Battlefield. Effective maneuver against weaknesses is only possible if the task force commander knows where the enemy is, what he is doing, and his weaknesses. Especially important is "seeing" into the enemy's formation. This is accomplished through use of stay-behind observation posts (OPs), nonorganic ground surveillance radar (GSR), and remotely emplaced sensor teams (REMs). Security must also be established enroute to allow movement without the threat of enemy contact.
Specify Preparation Priorities. Adequacy of preparation is limited by time and the difficulty of the mission assigned. As mentioned before, there are three general levels of preparation: occupy, prepare, and recon.
Define the Intent. Define the intent so that independent maneuvers can be initiated in the event of a communications disruption. The commander must define limits on independent maneuver by subordinate commanders.
Assign Routes and Priorities. Covered and concealed routes, offset from primary enemy avenues of approach, are best for maneuver against flanks of enemy formations. These routes can also be used to disengage and move away from the attacker. Identify and assign routes for each element. If several units have to use the same route, assign priorities for movement.
Counterattack by Fire or Maneuver. Consider whether to counterattack by fire or by maneuver. Counterattack by fire is the norm used at task force level. Consider counterattacks by fire and movement when:
The enemy is mainly dismounted infantry in the open.
The terrain does not provide fields of fire for counterattack by fire.
The enemy formation has been broken up and appears confused.
The enemy has captured decisive terrain.
The enemy has been defeated and counterattack by fire and movement would mop up the remnants.
Use Decision Points Developed During IPB. Use decision points developed during intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB) with contingency planning. Decision points identify those battlefield events which may require battlefield decisions.
Example: "Team B disengage and move to BP 42 if 10 or more enemy vehicles cross route 27," or "Team C be prepared to send a tank platoon to BP19 to cover TRP 4127 if main enemy efforts appear to be developing against Team D."
Decision points expedite quick maneuver and give subordinates a clearer idea of the commander's concept. This in turn facilitates maneuver in the event of a communications disruption.
STEP 6: INTEGRATE COMBAT SUPPORT
Combat support provides a valuable contribution to the defense. However, availability of support fires will often be limited, due to the heavy demands placed on them by other friendly and enemy missions. It is critical that you use combat support elements only for important tasks that they are capable of accomplishing. Full planning and prioritization are critical.
Fire Support
Destruction of enemy armored vehicles is the most important overall priority to the task force. However, supporting fires have a limited capability to actually destroy enemy armored vehicles (Copperhead and close air support with antiarmor loads are exceptions). Normally, you would select tasks for supporting fires that complement direct fire antiarmor weapons rather than massing both together. Because of the normal obscuration of the battlefield, using supporting fires in the same area as direct fires is not advisable. It will normally degrade the effectiveness of tank and antitank guided missile (ATGM) fires.
Tasks for Supporting Fires. Plan and use supporting fires:
At long-range to disrupt, slow, and disorganize the enemy.
On likely enemy overwatch positions to suppress antiarmor and artillery used in a direct fire role.
To provide illumination.
To cover disengagement, movements, and counterattacks.
Along covered avenues of approach to destroy enemy dismounted infantry. Mortars and field artillery are particularly effective against dismounted infantry. Final protective fires (FPFs) are used to block assaulting infantry and are planned close-in to battle positions.
To defeat dismounted breaching attempts.
To provide smoke for suppression and obscuration.
With FASCAM (family of scatterable mines) planned on avenues of approach where movement is choked, and to close lanes, gaps, or enemy breaches in obstacles. FASCAM is normally fired just in front of enemy deployed formations. Just like any other obstacle, it is most effective when tied in with other obstacles to canalize and slow the enemy.
In a series of positions from which to deliver direct fires.
With engagement areas and air space coordination areas (ACAs) for CAS planned and coordinated with the brigade. They should be designated in open areas which facilitate protected air routes and minimize the need to restrict other fires.
Along avenues of approach to slow down the enemy in areas or times where/when direct fires are not effective until repositioning can be effected.
To suppress enemy forward ADA when CAS or attack helicopters are supporting.
Developing Fire Priorities. The task force commander develops a priority listing of the above tasks based on the greatest needs to support the scheme of maneuver. He develops the listing with the fire support officer (FSO), who then coordinates with the air liaison officer (ALO) and heavy mortar platoon leader. After development of the initial fire plan, it is refined based on input from company commanders and fire support teams (FISTs). This priority of tasks is the primary way the commander describes his intent and ensures unity of effort. The FSO/FIST executes fires based on the commander's intent.
Normally, the task force is allocated priority targets which are planned on the most dangerous enemy locations. These priority targets are shifted as the battle develops. The task force commander also gives a priority of fires to a unit. Priority of fires is normally given to the forward security force initially, then to the team most in need of fire support as the battle develops.
Assign dedicated ADA weapons to provide priorities of protection in accordance with the vulnerability and criticality of the elements of the task force. Until battle positions are prepared, elements preparing positions and obstacles have priority. Once battle positions are hardened, command post (CP) and trains elements will usually receive priority. During maneuver, moving units receive priority due to their vulnerability. Position task force ADA elements well forward, but under centralized task force control. During movements forward, MANPADS (man portable air defense systems) move with company teams. Passive measures, such as camouflage, use of hide positions, and OPSEC, are important to avoid enemy identification.
Engineer Support
The engineer platoon working with the task force is normally the executor of this function of the task force. However, the task force is responsible for emplacement of obstacles. The task force provides manpower, additional equipment, and supplies to support the engineer effort.
Engineer equipment can also be used to build survivability positions. Priority is normally given to this task when the terrain does not provide sufficient hull defilade firing positions. When guiding survivability positions, care must be taken to build the positions down. Parapets do not provide protection against modern armor piercing, fin stabilized, discarding sabot (APFSDS)-type rounds. Priority of survivability positions is to tanks, BIFVs, ADA and ITVs. Fortify prestocked class V sites, combat trains, and CP locations as time permits. If covered routes out of and in to battle positions (or for resupply) are not available, these may receive a priority.
Use of Obstacles. Some important considerations in the use of obstacles are listed below:
Manpower and special equipment available.
Defending forces use obstacles to push the enemy into areas where he is most vulnerable to direct fires and to hold him in these areas.
Cover obstacles with direct and indirect fires as well as by observation. Do not plan obstacles (except as noted below) in locations where they cannot be protected during all periods of visibility. Assign specific company team the responsibility for protecting each obstacle.
Place point obstacles at irregular patterns along secondary restricted approaches to slow rapid movement. These might not always be covered by direct fire.
Time to emplace elaborate obstacle systems is often limited. Place obstacles where maximum use can be made of existing natural or manmade features. Constricted portions of avenues of approach are good locations for maximum return of obstacle work time.
Obstacles should decrease enemy mobility without hindering friendly force movement.
Lanes and gaps through obstacles may be required to allow movement. If so, devise a plan describing who closes, the signal, and when and where to report the closure. Company team commanders usually control gaps and lanes in their areas.
Employ obstacles in depth. Obstacles close to or in the battle position are easier to protect than obstacles placed forward of battle positions. Obstacles placed too close together will require only a single enemy response. They must be far enough apart so that each one will require a new deployment of the enemy's counter-obstacle force/equipment.
Normally, the most effective and least time-consuming type of artificial obstacle to emplace is a hasty minefield. Mines can lower the enemy's will to fight through fear of sudden and unexpected casualties.
Use hasty protective minefields for short periods of time or for specific operational missions. They can be laid by company teams and assisted by engineers, if available. Place each mine to take advantage of likely armor avenues of approach or expected future enemy positions. No standard pattern or density is required. Mines must be readily detectable and removable by the installing unit.
Record and report all hasty minefields, whether emplaced by the task force or emplaced at task force request, in accordance with SOP. A critical consideration for hasty minefields is the availability of mines. Basic loads should include a quantity of mines as designated by the commander.
To be effective, obstacles must have a surprise effect. Security forces must be forward to avoid enemy observation of obstacle construction. Obstacles should be in defilade and camouflaged if possible. Protect obstacles from enemy reconnaissance efforts by assigning patrols, OPs, and ambushes. Use smoke to conceal obstacles in depth.
Dummy obstacles are used to confuse the enemy.
The exact position of obstacles is coordinated between the engineer and company team covering and/or protecting the obstacle. The enemy will often try to breach obstacles during darkness or periods of reduced visibility. Obstacles placed where they cannot be protected are wasted efforts.
Check obstacles at first light to ensure breaching has not occurred.
Surveillance and Intelligence
It is important to determine and follow the attacker's maneuver. Knowing the axis and formations he is using, the location of his flanks, size of his elements, and their movement rates is vital to a successful defense. Equally important is to keep the enemy from "seeing" the battlefield. If the enemy can determine the defensive scheme of the task force, he can target preparatory fires. This may degrade or destroy the task force's combat capability; the enemy will be able to identify weak points and attack them. Successful execution of both tasks is critical. It involves use of the IPB (intelligence preparation of the battlefield) process and effective surveillance and/or countersurveillance measures.
Scouts. These are the soldiers best trained to function as the eyes and ears of the task force. Use scouts in the areas hardest to cover. They are the primary means by which the commander "sees" the battlefield. Their function is one of combat support rather than maneuver.
Ground Surveillance Radar (GSR). GSR is a CEWI (combat electronics warfare intelligence) asset that is often attached to the task force. It can detect moving vehicles and personnel in open terrain at long ranges. GSR can provide information on the number, location, disposition, and types of targets. Normally, place GSRs to cover open, high speed approaches where early detection is critical. You may also use them to monitor defiles and to detect enemy recon elements by oblique shots across the sector's open flat areas. Also, use GSRs to vector patrols and assist during withdrawals.
Improve the effectiveness of GSRs by using overlapping sectors an the "flicker" on-off technique, and by providing local security to GSR positions. A rest plan is required to ensure that GSR operators are fresh and alert.
Reconnoiter GSR positions during daylight conditions and occupy them just prior to darkness. Targets can be generally identified at 10 kilometers or less, but movements can be detected at much grater ranges. Therefore, use GSR in good visibility to support the long-range, GSRs can often support the security mission without actually being placed on the screen line. GSR NCOs are technical experts. Commanders should include them in the planing process.
Remotely Emplaced Sensors (REMs). Use REM teams, from the CEWI battalion, when available. They are division assets placed or attached in direct support as required. The receiving or supported unit provides the manpower to emplace the REMS. The team leader monitors the REMs output for the S2. Emplace REMs as far forward as possible. They are especially useful in covering dead space and broken terrain where observation would require more OPs or patrols than can be provided. They can also assist in detecting attempts to breach friendly obstacles and in keeping track of enemy movements after withdrawal of the security force.
STEP 7: FINISH THE PLAN
With the concept of the operation complete, the commander and his staff now determine the additional taskings and coordination needed to make the concept work. They take the required corrective actions to compensate for any disadvantages associated with the chosen course of action. They finalize plans for fire control, combat service support, surveillance, obstacle emplacement, communications, and other coordination measures. They determine requirements for additional support and request the support from higher headquarters. Coordination is made with adjacent, supporting, and higher headquarters. They issue an order consisting of at least an overlay with graphics, execution matrix, and necessary coordinating instructions. Planning and preparations continue as long as the task force remains in position.
Security
The task force ensures that its security plan is complete by reviewing its surveillance and countersurveillance procedures. It is critical that the task force "see" the enemy early and preclude him from discovering friendly defense organization. The enemy's ability to bring overwhelming force to bear on friendly defenses is directly tied to the effectiveness of his reconnaissance.
As the plan is finalized, the commander carefully refines the surveillance and countersurveillance requirements for the battle. If necessary, he allocates additional forces to strengthen the security force to meet intelligence requirements.
Defensive Fire Control
The task force commander uses fire control measures to mass the fires of his command on the enemy formation. This is accomplished while distributing fires to avoid target overkill. He places engagement areas and target reference points (TRPs) along each avenue of approach and assigns engagement priorities. Ideally, each battalion-sized avenue of approach should be initially covered by a company. The commander establishes on-order positions to allow more units to fire on that approach. The use of engagement areas has proven to be an effective fire control measure at task force level.
It is also imperative that the commander provide guidance on timing for various weapon systems to initiate fires. Early engagements are usually used in delay operations and to deceive the enemy. When defending, it is more likely that the bulk of the task force will wait until it masses its fires.
Planning Limited Visibility Adjustments
There are two general categories or conditions which limit visibility: those which mechanical aids can overcome or partially overcome, and those which mechanical aids cannot overcome.
The first category obviously includes darkness. The second category includes battlefield dust, smoke, rain, snow, fog, or other conditions that cannot be overcome by illumination, image intensification, or radar. Task forces must always plan for daylight and limited visibility operations simultaneously. The enemy may not attack during the daylight, or a daylight battle may continue into the night. Either way, the task force may not be able to adjust from its original positions and adapt to limited visibility operations.
Technology has radically changed the limited-visibility battlefield. Night vision devices have greatly increased limited visibility capabilities to see, engage, and move. Electronic means (radar and sensors) have also expanded limited operations capabilities. The major defensive tactical impacts are:
The advantages of the stationary defender over the moving attacker have grown. The most advanced technology has gone into the gunner's sight.
Despite the increase in capability, effective ranges will be reduced by limited visibility conditions. The extent of reduction is dependent on the nature of the limited visibility and the mechanical equipment available.
The amount of limited visibility equipment is limited, and fields of fire are reduced. Most of the soldiers in a unit will be significantly impaired during periods of limited visibility. The psychological impacts, need for tighter formations, and special navigation and command and control techniques remain.
The attacker can be expected to take advantage of limited visibility conditions or create them in a manner that benefits him. Normally, the commander can expect the attacker to use night limited visibility conditions to:
Conduct reconnaissance operations to locate the defender's weapons, obstacles, and positions.
Breach obstacles.
Move elements through gaps in the defender's coverage caused by reduced weapon ranges.
This means that defending during periods of limited visibility will be a normal rather that a special condition. The ability of the attacker to create conditions of smoke, dust, or other obscurants means that the defender must be able to rapidly modify the defense. In fact, defense planning should assume limited visibility rather than full visibility.
Adjustments for Limited Visibility. The following steps help to overcome the problems of limited visibility:
Use long-range detection equipment on well defined avenues of approach.
Redeploy some units and weapons to concentrate along avenues of approach that the enemy will be likely to use during limited visibility.
Use increased numbers of infantry, scouts, OPs, patrols, and armor-killer teams forward on secondary avenues of approach and between positions.
Use point obstacles and early warning devices along likely night approaches to slow the enemy or alert defenders to enemy presence.
Plan and rehearse the required movement of weapons and units and the massing of fires on the approaches the enemy may use. Friendly units moving along reconnoitered routes should be able to move faster than an enemy moving through unfamiliar terrain.
Plan illumination on or behind likely engagement areas to silhouette enemy forces. While this illumination should not be needed with thermal sights, it will be needed with other sights.
Adjustments to the defensive organization should commence before dark. Return to daylight positions should be completed before dawn.
When heavy rain, snowstorms, fog, or any other conditions prevent use of mechanical aids, many of the techniques for night defense apply. Defenders must move closer to the avenues of approach that they are guarding. Sensors may still be of value, and radar can sometimes penetrate these conditions.
Make greater use of infantry, and even tanks and ITVs, to protect obstacles against breaching.
Make even greater use of flanking engagements and obstacles. The attacker's vulnerability to them is greater during periods of reduced visibility.
Issuing Orders
The issuance of the OPORD in oral or written form and the subsequent supervision culminate the planning process. It is a major step that ensures unity of effort and clearly conveys the commander's intent. When possible and practical, issue the defense order from a forward vantage point overlooking the area of operations. Company/team commanders, having left the movement of their units to their 2ICs, can, upon receipt, immediately move to their own defensive areas. There they should begin their reconnaissance and save time for their subordinate leaders.
Use execution matrixes to assign initial and on-order missions, positions, and fire control guidance to units. An execution matrix with an overlay is the minimum that the commander should attempt to provide to his subordinates.
The matrix (figure 3 is simple to construct. Place the battalion task force elements across the top of the box and position "levels of preparation" on the side. Include special missions for the task force elements. The boxes are then divided into two sections. Battle positions are recorded in the top of the block and fire control orientation graphics are recorded in the lower section. Use graphics to show TRPs or EAs (engagement areas).
You should now be familiar with the seven steps of planning a defense. These steps, with minor modifications, are applicable to the planning of retrograde operations.
RETROGRADE OPERATIONS
A retrograde is any organized movement away from the enemy. There are three types of retrograde operations. They are:
Delays.
Withdrawals.
Retirements.
A retrograde may be forced by enemy action or executed voluntarily. A well-planned, well-organized, aggressively executed retrograde operation may provide opportunities for inflicting heavy damage on enemy troops and equipment.
PURPOSES OF RETROGRADE OPERATIONS
The purpose of retrograde operations is to economize forces, maintain freedom of maneuver, or avoid decisive combat. A battalion task force conducts a retrograde as part of a larger force (brigade, division) to:
Avoid combat under unfavorable conditions.
Gain time.
Reposition forces.
Permit the use of a force elsewhere.
Harass, exhaust, resist, and delay the enemy.
Draw the enemy into an unfavorable position.
Shorten lines of communications and supply.
Clear zones for friendly use of chemical or nuclear weapons.
Conform to the movement of other friendly forces.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR A RETROGRADE
Consider the following factors before conducting a retrograde operation:
Leadership and morale.
Surveillance and reconnaissance.
Mobility.
Deception.
Conservation of combat power.
Commander's intention.
The following paragraphs will describe each consideration separately.
Leadership and Morale
Maintenance of the offensive spirit is essential among subordinate leaders and troops. Movements to the rear may be seen as a defeat or a threat of isolation. To prevent this, commanders must ensure that soldiers have confidence in their leaders and know the purpose of the retrograde and their role in it.
Surveillance and Reconnaissance
Reports must be timely and accurate. Knowledge of the enemy's action is especially vital during retrograde operations. Often the only accurate information is from the commander near the scene of the action.
The intelligence requirement for the commander increases as forces are echeloned to the rear and combat capabilities are reduced. Surveillance and reconnaissance must locate and report enemy attempts to pursue, outflank, or isolate all or a portion of the task force.
Mobility
Commanders must achieve a mobility advantage for the retrograding task force over the enemy. The larger the mobility differential, the greater will be the probability of a successful retrograde. Therefore, all possible steps to enhance friendly mobility and to degrade the mobility of the enemy must be taken.
Improving Friendly Mobility. Friendly mobility is improved by:
Reconnaissance of the routes and battle positions.
Improving existing road networks and controlling traffic flow.
Executing well-rehearsed unit movement SOPs.
Positioning air defense and security forces at critical chokepoints.
Evacuating civilian refugees or restricting their movements to routes not used by the task force.
Evacuating casualties, recoverable supplies, and unnecessary materiel.
Displacing nonessential combat service support activities.
Degrading Enemy Mobility. The mobility of the enemy can be degraded by:
Occupying and controlling chokepoints or terrain that dominate high-speed avenues of approach.
Destroying roads, bridges, and rafting on the avenues not required for friendly forces.
Improving natural obstacles with artificial obstacles and covering them with fire.
Employing indirect fire and smoke to degrade the enemy's vision and to slow his rate of advance.
Conducting spoiling attacks to keep the enemy off balance and to force him to react.
Deception
Deception operations during retrograde operations provide security to cover moving units and to provide surprise from resulting unit dispositions. Proper use of deception measures causes indecision and delay in enemy actions.
Deception is aided by taking maximum advantage of darkness and limited-visibility conditions. Using infiltration techniques is also an effective method to cover the relocation and evacuation of units and materiel.
Commanders can improve security during retrograde operations by:
Employing notional or dummy minefields.
Establishing decoy positions.
Maintaining normal radio traffic patterns and artillery fires.
Imposing radio listening silence.
Disengaging units.
Using feints and demonstrations to indicate other than the actual activities.
Employing deceptive electronic warfare and psychological operation measures.
Conserving Combat Power
In conducting a retrograde operation, the commander takes action to conserve his combat power. Considerations that the commander weighs are:
To balance the risk of conserving the combat power of the task force and mission accomplishment.
To disengage and withdraw less mobile units and nonessential elements prior to withdrawing the main body.
To use mobile forces to cover the withdrawal of less mobile forces.
To use the minimum essential forces to cover the withdrawal of the main body.
Commander's Specific Intentions
As in the offense and defense, each type of retrograde operation is designed to satisfy a commander's specific intention:
Each of the above types of retrograde operations will be discussed in detail in lesson 2.
This concludes the first learning event. You should now be familiar with the planning procedures for defensive operations, and the purposes and considerations for conducting retrograde operations. The next learning event will teach you the Soviet doctrine for countering retrograde operations.
Learning Event 2:
IDENTIFY THE NATURE OF THE SOVIET THREAT TO U.S. FORCES CONDUCTING RETROGRADE OPERATIONS
The Soviet Dictionary of Basic Military Terms defines "pursuit" as:
An attack on a withdrawing enemy, undertaken in the course of an operation or battle for the purpose of finally destroying or capturing his forces. Destruction of a withdrawing enemy is achieved by hitting his main body with (fire) strikes, by relentless and energetic parallel or frontal pursuit, by straddling his withdrawal route, and by attacking his flanks and rear.
This learning event will familiarize you with the tactics used by the Soviet Army in pursuing a retrograding force. The data will be presented as if it were being written for use by a Soviet officer. It will assist you in "seeing" the battlefield through the eyes of a Soviet commander during a pursuit operation.
PURSUIT
Pursuit features swift and deep movements of forces to strike the enemy's most vulnerable areas. Three basic requirements for successful pursuit are planning and organization, detection of withdrawal, and a maintenance of high tempo. By definition, a pursuit occurs when the enemy withdraws. An enemy could be forced to withdraw:
As a result of a meeting engagement.
After a penetration of his defensive position.
Following a nuclear strike.
An enemy may deliberately withdraw:
When threatened with encirclement.
If he is making a redistribution of forces.
When he attempts to draw the opposing side into a kill zone.
When he withdraws for safety before launching a nuclear strike.
Normally, a regimental commander is the lowest commander to order initiation of pursuit. However, all commanders are expected to move independently into pursuit when indicators of withdrawal are seen.
The scale of a pursuit is governed by the size of the force involved. It is categorized as:
Tactical pursuit. Tactical pursuit is conducted by a regiment or a division. In the case of a regiment, pursuit would probably extend about 10 to 20 km into enemy depths; in the case of a division, from 20 to 30 km.
Operational pursuit. Operational pursuit is conducted by army or higher headquarters on a broad front. It may extend to a depth of several hundred kilometers.
Tentative planning for pursuit is included in the initial attack plan. The amount of detail in such planning depends on the anticipated actions of the enemy. It also depends on the battle formation of the attacking troops and the amount of planning time available.
Planning Considerations for Pursuit
Items that must be considered when planning the pursuit are:
Possible enemy routes of withdrawal.
The scheme of maneuver.
Availability and condition of pursuit routes.
Forces available.
Critical terrain features (high ground, road junctions, river crossings, bridges, defiles).
The use of forward detachments and helicopter assault forces.
Allocation of nuclear weapons and delivery systems.
Combat support and combat service support resources.
Active reconnaissance, appreciation of enemy tactics, and knowledge of the current tactical situation are essential in obtaining indicators of enemy withdrawal. Signs of preparation for withdrawal include:
Nuclear strikes against first echelon attacking formations.
Intensified movement to the rear, especially artillery and reserves.
Increase in fires in individual sectors of the front.
Conduct of heavy fire concentrations in separate areas which apparently are not in accord with the developing situation. Also, heavy fires at a time when there appears to be a general reduction in fires.
Intensified reconnaissance.
Preparations for demolitions and/or destruction of facilities, installations, and equipment.
Limited local counterattacks.
Once pursuit has been initiated, its success depends on the maintenance of a high rate of advance with continuous application of force.
Forms of Pursuit
The forms of pursuit are frontal, parallel, and combination frontal and parallel (figure 4, below). The preferred and most effective form is combination frontal and parallel.
Frontal Pursuit. The frontal pursuit is conducted by forces in contact. It is the most likely type of pursuit at the very beginning of the enemy withdrawal, at night, in difficult terrain, when evercoming obstacles, or when off-road maneuver is limited.
Frontal pursuit applies constant pressure on the enemy. It limits his freedom of maneuver, his ability to take up defensive positions, and his ability to disengage. The aim of a frontal pursuit is to force the enemy to deploy and to accept combat under unfavorable conditions, and to delay the withdrawal. Maneuver and flank attacks, though limited, are conducted. The frontal pursuit normally is not decisive since it only pushes the enemy back on his approaching reserves.
Parallel Pursuit. In the parallel pursuit, the pursuit force advances on routes parallel to the withdrawing enemy. High-speed parallel pursuit may permit either the attack on the enemy's flank or cutting his main withdrawal routes. Under threat of flank attack, the enemy may be required to split his force and delay withdrawal while defending against the pursuer's attack. Unless accompanied by frontal pursuit, this method gives the enemy some opportunity to maneuver and counterattack.
Combination Frontal and Parallel Pursuit. In the combination frontal and parallel pursuit, the main pursuit force moves parallel to the withdrawing enemy. A smaller forcer pursues directly, maintaining constant contact with the enemy. The combination form has the advantages of both frontal and parallel pursuit. It hinders disengagement, leads to flank attacks, and cuts the enemy's withdrawal routes.
Command and Control
Centralized planning and decentralized execution characterize the pursuit. Preservation of control is a primary concern in a fast-moving situation. At the same time, attempts should be made to disrupt the enemy's command and control. Continuity of control is achieved by:
Designating the direction of advance, routes, or zones of advance, phase lines, and objectives.
Fixing times for completion of specific missions.
Altering missions as subsequent developments require.
Augmenting normal radio communications with aerial relays.
Using two command groups. The commander will be at an observation post behind the leading combat elements. The second group, headed by the chief of staff, will be the main force.
Designating the phase lines from which the artillery must be prepared to fire by specified times.
Conducting the Pursuit
A timely and correct decision to initiate pursuit is critical to its success. If the enemy is able to begin an undetected withdrawal, he avoids the constant pressure that disrupts his actions. Further, if the enemy can gain a safe distance of withdrawal, the attacking forces are vulnerable to tactical nuclear strikes.
The enemy will attempt to withdraw at an advantageous time, usually at night. Timely actions are taken to ensure maintenance of contact. Artillery fire and air strikes harass and disrupt the enemy's withdrawal. In the initial phase, tank and motorized rifle pursuit groups attempt to make up routes parallel to the enemy withdrawal route. This helps establish the combination frontal and parallel method of pursuit.
Initiate Frontal Pursuit. Units in contact initiate frontal pursuit immediately on detection of withdrawal, moving in whatever formation they have at the moment. As the situation permits, they reform into march or prebattle formation, and then into attack formation when required.
Initiate Parallel Pursuit. The actions of the frontal pursuit force are aimed at facilitating the commitment of a parallel pursuit force, which is preferably tank heavy. The parallel force, with security elements in the lead, also uses march or prebattle formations until deployment for the attack is required.
In pursuit, the commander attempts to employ the maximum available combat troops. Pursuit is conducted in a wide zone. This can be up to 30 kilometers for a division. The commander retains the tactical options to converge on the most important axis or to redirect the effort on a new axis. This flexibility is also required when engaging advancing enemy reserves or counterattacking forces.
Before or during the course of the pursuit, forward detachments may be designated to move ahead of main pursuit forces. They will then operate independently to outdistance the withdrawing enemy forces. These detachments avoid combat until they reach their assigned objective area. Their missions may include concurrent reconnaissance reporting or seizure of critical points on withdrawal routes. They may also include the destruction of the enemy's means of nuclear attack, and linkup with tactical airborne or heliborne landings.
Reconnaissance. As the pursuit is developed, reconnaissance elements provide information on the disposition of retreating enemy formations and on the forward movement of his reserves. Because of the potential depth of the operation, aerial reconnaissance may be the primary means of identifying significant threats to pursuit force. This intelligence is vital at the stage when a pursuit force faces the risk of becoming over-extended. It could be the basis for termination of the pursuit.
Heliborne and Airborne. Heliborne or airborne forces may be assigned missions similar to those described for forward detachments. Vertical envelopment permits operations much deeper into enemy territory.
Artillery. When pursuit is initiated, the parallel pursuit force normally is formed from uncommitted second echelon elements. The control of artillery is decentralized to maneuver battalions. Batteries and even individual guns move with lead elements to deliver direct fire. Artillery elements are a normal component of forward detachments.
During pursuit, artillery missions include fire on columns and concentration at road junctions, defiles, bridges, and crossings. They also include repulse of enemy counter- attacks, destruction or delay of enemy reserves, and destruction of enemy means of nuclear attack.
Air Support. Air support complements other fire support in the destruction and disorganization of the retreating enemy, particularly of mobile targets. The situation during the course of a pursuit may become obscure. Consequently, air reconnaissance is an important factor in ensuring the success of the pursuit.
Air reconnaissance is used to determine:
The beginning of the withdrawal of rear area forces.
The composition of withdrawing forces and direction of movement.
The composition and direction of movement of the reserve force moving forward.
The nature of obstacles and intermediate defensive positions.
Engineers. Movement support detachments and mobile obstacle detachments provided by engineer troops are instrumental in sustaining the rate of advance. In the initial phase, their missions include operating from forward positions to breach obstacles and minefields. In the course of the pursuit, their mission is to provide bridge and road repairs and to block withdrawal routes with mines, demolitions, and obstacles.
Logistics. With maximum commitment of forces, requirements for fuel, ammunition, and maintenance increase, priority of logistics is given to units having the greatest success. The depth of pursuit is governed by the capability for logistic support. One yardstick for sustaining pursuit is the requirement that, in a large scale offensive, a tank division with reinforcing transportation units should be self-sufficient for up to five days.
Nuclear Targets. The actions of the pursuing force, in conjunction with forward detachments and air-landed forces, act to create nuclear targets. Priority nuclear targets include:
Approaching reserves.
Main groupings of retreating forces.
Enemy concentrations at critical areas (bridges, road junctions, defiles).
Enemy means of nuclear attack.
Termination of the Pursuit. The pursuit is terminated on order of the next higher commander. Conditions under which pursuit is terminated include the following:
The enemy has been destroyed.
The pursuing force has outdistanced its logistic support.
The pursuing force has become overextended and is in danger of being cut off.
The advantage no longer belongs to the pursuing force.
A diagram of a Soviet attack on a withdrawing enemy is shown in figure 5, below.
This concludes the first lesson. You should now be able to identify the purposes of, and planning considerations for, retrograde operations and the nature of the Soviet threat to U.S. forces conducting retrograde operations.
If you have any questions, go back and reread the text. When you are ready, take the practice exercise for this lesson.
Practice Exercise
