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LESSON 2

TACTICAL FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING

 

TASK

Identify considerations and procedures for planning fire support for the tactical operations of maneuver units.

 

CONDITIONS

Given the subcourse material for this lesson, a training scenario and extracts, as applicable, the student will complete the practice exercise at the end of the lesson.

 

STANDARD

The student will demonstrate his knowledge and comprehension of the task by identifying considerations and procedures for planning fire support for the tactical operation of maneuver units.

 

REFERENCES

FM 6-20

FM 6-20-30

FM 6-20-40

FM 6-20-50

FM 6-30

 

GENERAL

Success on the AirLand Battlefield depends on the careful integration of fire support assets into the simultaneous battles in the deep, close, and rear areas. In the process of integrating fire support into operations, the most important considerations are adequacy, flexibility, and continuity.

In this lesson, you will learn about the fire support planning considerations and procedures for both offensive and defensive operations. You will also learn these considerations and procedures as they apply to retrograde operations, to military operations on urbanized terrain (MOUT), and to the use of illumination and smoke munitions.

The lesson will end with a discussion of the characteristics and phases of preparation fires and the purposes and techniques of quick fire support planning.

In offensive operations, the main attack receives priority of fire support while long-range systems strike defenses in depth, enemy reserves, or targets such as command posts, bridges, and defiles. In the defense, a greater balance of fire support is necessary, but anticipated areas of the enemy's main effort are allocated stronger fire support. The FSCOORD ensures that these primary considerations are observed by carefully weighing fire support tasks required for maneuver operations. These general fire support tasks are listed in table 4, below.

 

Learning Event 1:
IDENTIFY THE FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS AND PROCEDURES FOR OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS

The primary purpose of an offensive operation is to destroy the enemy. This is done by breaking through his defenses and driving rapidly and violently to his rear area. Other purposes of the offense are to:

• Secure key or decisive terrain.
• Deprive the enemy of resources or decisive terrain.
• Gain information.
• Deceive and divert the enemy.
• Hold the enemy in position.

 

GENERAL OFFENSIVE CONSIDERATIONS

The offensive AirLand Battle involves both close-in and deep targets for the fire support system. In addressing fire support for the offense, the FSCOORD should focus on these functional areas or considerations:

• Fire support tasks.
• Command and control.
• Fire support planning and coordination.

Fire support tasks will be discussed first.

 

Fire Support Tasks

One task of fire support in planning offensive operations is to support the movement to contact or meeting engagement by:

• Providing immediately responsive fires to leading elements.
• Attacking deep targets with massed indirect fires and air support.
• Employing active and aggressive counterfire to allow freedom of maneuver.

Another fire support task is to soften enemy defenses before the attack. This is accomplished by engaging enemy:

• Indirect fire weapons, systems, and OPs.
• Reserves and command and control facilities.
• Logistics and assembly areas.
• Communications facilities.
• Frontline defenses.

Another fire support task is to provide support during the attack by using all available fire support means to destroy, neutralize, or suppress high-payoff targets and other targets that could impede or react to the attack.

Fire support tasks also include the planning of fires during consolidation to:

• Protect friendly units as they reorganize.
• Break up enemy counterattacks.
• Prevent enemy reinforcement, disengagement, or resupply.

 

Command and Control

In the offense, the attacker has the initiative and can concentrate maneuver forces and firepower at the time and place of his choosing. The maneuver commander considers decentralizing control of fire support to ensure that immediately responsive fires are available to his subordinate units.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination

A third general offensive consideration is the planning and coordination of fire support. In this functional area, it is important to:

• Make fire support planning and coordination as detailed as possible before the attack.
• Make planning and coordination informal and flexible during the operation.
• Plan only essential targets (do not "measle sheet").
• Consider careful employment of coordinating measures to avoid interfering with friendly forces.
• Use permissive measures well forward to preclude endangering friendly forces.
• Use on-order measures to enhance flexibility.
• Use preparations, smoke, and series and groups of targets.
• Use all available target acquisition resources and process information responsively.
• Provide continuous complete coverage within the zone of operation.
• Position indirect fire weapons well forward.
• Begin forward displacements early to keep pace with maneuver forces.
• Stress the use of wire communications. When the attack has begun, use radio as the primary communications means.
• Use COLTs on flanks to provide early warning, observation, and lasing capability for Copperhead and other terminal homing munitions.

 

Types of Offensive Operations

The five basic types of offensive operations are:

• Movement to contact.
• Hasty attack.
• Deliberate attack.
• Exploitation.
• Pursuit.

Other types of offensive actions that may require fire support using related techniques include:

• Reconnaissance in force.
• Raid.
• Feint.
• Demonstration.

 

MOVEMENT TO CONTACT

Contact with the enemy or to regain lost contact movement to contact is an offensive operation designed to gain initial ground. The primary consideration in preparing for movement to contact is anticipating actions during the movement and deploying in a manner that affords the greatest possible security to the main body while facilitating quick, strong reaction when contact is made.

During the movement to contact, standard mission assignments will normally be used. In certain situations, however, the brigade commander may want to provide additional weight to the forward maneuver company. In such situations, a dedicated battery may be considered. Use of a dedicated battery necessitates extremely close coordination between the supported unit and the dedicated battery.

In movement to contact, the FSO is especially concerned with ensuring that each leading team has immediately responsive fire support, and with planning fires to support the task force as a whole.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

FSCOORD considerations unique to the movement to contact include fire support tasks, command and control procedures, and fire support planning and coordination.

 

Fire Support Tasks. In considering fire support tasks, the FSCOORD should:

• Provide immediately responsive fires to the leading company.
• Attack deep targets with massed fires and close air support.
• Plan for hasty attack contingencies.
• Use a COLT with the lead company to provide additional responsive lasing capability for range determination and target designation.

 

Command and Control. Command and control considerations of the FSCOORD during movement to contact includes:

• Using extreme decentralization.
• Using nonstandard mission assignments to increase response.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. In planning and coordinating fire support for movement to contact operations, the FSCOORD should:

• Place some available CAS on ground alert.
• Streamline request procedures to enhance responsiveness.
• Plan on-order fire support coordinating measures well beyond the line of departure (LD).
• Position fire support assets well forward to exploit the ranges of weapons systems.

 

How to Support a Battalion/Task Force Moving to Contact

Figures 10 through 14 show an example of the steps required to support a battalion/task force moving to contact.

 

 

 

 

A hasty attack is an offensive operation usually conducted with minimum advanced planning after a movement to contact. It is conducted with the resources immediately available in order to maintain momentum.

A hasty attack requires responsive fire support to compensate for the relatively small amount of maneuver initially echelons forward. The commander must be prepared to use every available asset on the shortest possible notice. The speed of attack will offset a lack of thorough preparation. Once an attack is launched, however, the commander must commit every available element of combat support to the attack.

The hasty attack is a difficult operation. It seeks to fix the enemy's forward elements in place with firepower; to find gaps, weak spots, or open flanks; and to move quickly through those openings. Speed is essential, and fire support plays a key role in the hasty attack.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

The FSCOORD considerations unique to a hasty attack are listed in the following paragraphs.

 

Fire Support Tasks. In considering fire support tasks for a hasty attack, the FSCOORD should:

• Concentrate fires on enemy forward operations until friendly units cross the final coordination line (FCL) or until fires are lifted/shifted at the direction of the maneuver commander.
• Suppress enemy direct fire weapons.
• Screen friendly forces from hostile ground observation with smoke and white phosphorous (WP).
• Provide deep fires to close off the immediate battle area to enemy reinforcements and/or resupply.

 

Command and Control. The FSCOORD's command and control considerations for a hasty attack include:

• Issuing on-order mission to exploit successes.
• Using reinforcing and GSR artillery to augment the fires available to the attacking force.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. The FSCOORD must plan and coordinate fire support. For a hasty attack, he should:

• Ensure priority of fires to lead elements.
• Plan and coordinate as primary targets those that suppress enemy direct fire weapons and obscure the enemy's vision.
• Plan a few well-placed on-call targets and use "shift from a known point" fire missions.
• Plan the use of scatterable mines to block and isolate the enemy.
• Plan fires to slow enemy breaching attempts across hasty minefields.
• Place a COLT with lead elements in the attack or as early warning on a flank.
• Update target information as the attack progresses.
• Plan interdiction fires to slow influx of enemy follow-on forces to the battle area.
• Position mortars far forward.
• Place some CAS on ground alert, if available.

 

DELIBERATE ATTACK

A deliberate attack is an attack planned and coordinated with all concerned elements on a basis of:

• Thorough reconnaissance.
• Evaluation of all available intelligence and relative combat strength.
• Analysis of various courses of action.
• Other factors affecting the situation.

It is generally conducted against a well-organized defense when a hasty attack is not practical.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

FSCOORD considerations unique to the deliberate attack are listed in the following paragraphs.

 

Fire Support Tasks. For a deliberate attack, the FSCOORD should:

• Provide immediately responsive fires to the lead attack force.
• Attack deep targets to block movements of reserves and follow-on forces.
• Support close-in and deep battles simultaneously.
• Concentrate fires on forward enemy elements until friendly forces cross the FCL.
• Mass fires to help create a "hole" in the enemy's defenses.
• Schedule fires to support maneuver phases of the operation.

 

Command and Control. FSCOORD command and control considerations for a deliberate attack are:

• Maintain a degree of centralization in order to mass fires expeditiously.
• Assign on-order missions to facilitate successes. A change in command relationship may be necessary for exploitation or pursuit.
• Position FA assets well forward to support the attack.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. For a deliberate attack , as the FSCOORD plans and coordinates fire support, he should:

• Plan fires to suppress forces on the flanks of the penetration.
• Plan scatterable mines to block and isolate the enemy.
• Plan CAS to defeat armored vehicles.
• Place a COLT with leading elements or use for early warning on flanks.
• Plan naval gun fire (NGF) to defeat static hardened targets.
• Conduct detailed formal yet flexible, fire support planning before the operation.
• Use all available intelligence/acquisition sources.
• Plan coordinating measures beyond the line of departure and on order measures to implement as the attack progresses.
• Plan a preparation after considering the following factors:
• Will the loss of surprise be significant?
• Are there enough significant targets?
• Are there enough fire support assets (weapons and ammunition) to support the preparation?
• Can the enemy recover before the effect can be exploited?

 

EXAMPLE OF A BATTALION/TASK FORCE DELIBERATE ATTACK

Figures 15 through 19 are examples of a battalion/task force deliberate attack. The brigade commander's concept and guidance were as follows: TF 1-13 Armorer, TF 1-95 Mech, and TF 1-94 Mech attack to rupture enemy defenses and secure Objectives GOLD, SILVER, and LEAD, respectively. 1-22 Cav follows TF 1-13 initially; after the initial penetration, 1-22 Cav protects the left flank. As initial objectives are secured, TF 1-15 Armor bypasses TF 1-95 on the left and TF 1-14 Armor (picking up one mechanized company from TF 1-94) bypasses TF 1-95 on the right to continue the attack to secure objectives ZINC and IRON, respectively. On order, TF 1-13 continues the attack to secure Objective TIN. On order, brigade will continue the attack beyond Phase Line PICK or assist passage of the 24th Armored Division.

TF 1-95 Armor will pass through elements of 1st Brigade (TF 1-10), attack to secure Objective SILVER, and prepare to assist the passage of TF 1-14 and TF 1-15. The zone of TF 1-95 is as shown. The task force opposes two platoons initially and a third platoon about 3 kilometers into the element and a company in the vicinity of PL PICK. Terrain in the zone is hilly and wooded initially, opening up more beyond Objective SILVER. The following fire support assets are available:

• One battalion mortar platoon.
• Priority of fires from 1-52 FA (155, SP).
• Four CAS sorties.

When the commander received his mission and began his planning, he went to the TF 1-10 CP with his S2, S3, and FSO to coordinate their passage of lines and gain information on the enemy and zone of action. The two TF FSOs discussed target information and fire plans currently in existence. They also discussed the use of TF 1-10 mortars to supplement fires available to TF 1-95 during the passage. Then the TF 1-95 command group moved to a forward observation post (OP) for a visual reconnaissance. On the OP, the S2 of TF 1-10 (stationary unit) briefed the group on the terrain, the best avenues of approach, and the enemy. The TF 1-95 commander evaluated this information and further analyzed his mission in that light. The commander, S3, and FSO then studied the overall situation to determine the best course of action for the attack. On the basis of the commander's estimate, a four-phase attack was developed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

NOTE

Other types of planned fires may be substituted for a preparation. Aggressively applied series, groups, and programs of targets can be used to responsively support each echelon of maneuver throughout the attack. These fires are continuously planned to suppress forces on flanks of the penetration, fix enemy forces away from the penetration, and prevent reinforcement by follow-on forces. These fires help block enemy movement of reserves, destroy his command and control facilities, neutralize his artillery, and prevent the escape of retreating elements.

 

EXPLOITATION

Exploitation is an offensive operation that follows a successful attack to take advantage of weakened or collapsed enemy defenses. An exploitation is conducted to prevent reconstitution of enemy defenses, to prevent enemy withdrawal, to secure deep objectives, and to destroy enemy forces.

Forces in the exploitation usually advance rapidly on a wide front. Actions are characterized by speed, responsive fire support, and speedy commitment of reserves. The exploiting forces drive swiftly for deep objectives to seize command posts, sever escape routes, and hit reserves, artillery, and other combat support units.

An exploiting division should have as many air support systems as corps can afford. These aircraft can:

• Operate effectively when enemy defenses are crumbling.
• Quickly deliver massive amounts of ordnance.
• Operate across wide and deep sections.
• Seek out, follow, and destroy withdrawing enemy forces.
• Present no rearming or refueling burdens to the land force.
• Block avenues of approach for counterattacking enemy forces.

Follow-and-support forces may be used in exploitation. The follow-and-support force is not a reserve. It is a committed force and is provided appropriate fire support. Follow-and-support forces can:

• Widen or secure the shoulders of a penetration.
• Destroy bypassed enemy.
• Relieve support units that are halted to contain enemy elements.
• Block the movement of enemy reinforcements.
• Open and secure lines of communications.
• Guard prisoners, key areas, and installations.
• Control refugees.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

The FSCOORD considerations unique to the exploitation are listed in the following paragraphs.

 

Fire Support Tasks. FSCOORD fire support tasks unique to exploitation operations are to:

• Provide highly mobile, flexible fire support responsive to the needs of maneuver.
• Place suppression fires to fix bypassed enemy pockets of resistance until friendly maneuver elements are safely past and follow-up forces can deal with them.
• Provide fires to slow/block enemy retreat.

 

Command and Control. In exploitation, the FA force commander will use decentralized control because of the decreased requirement for massed fires. There is also the need for extremely responsive fire support. The FSCOORD should consider attachment of FA assets.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. As the FSCOORD plans and coordinates fire support for an exploitation, he should:

• Conduct limited informal planning.
• Redistribute long-range/retransmission (retrans) communications equipment to facilitate long-range operations.
• Delete old targets as the exploitation continues and as new targeting information becomes available.
• Plan for increased POL/ammunition usage.
• Position artillery/mortars far forward. Displace them continually.
• Place fire support coordinating measures well forward.
• Plan on-order measures.
• Place some available CAS on ground alert.
• Plan for the use of scatterable mines to block retreating enemy and inhibit enemy reinforcements.
• Plan fires to impede enemy breaching of hasty minefields.

 

PURSUIT

A pursuit is an offensive operation against a retreating enemy force. It follows a successful attack or exploitation. Pursuit is ordered when the enemy cannot conduct an organized defense and attempts to disengage. Its objective is to maintain relentless pressure on the enemy and completely destroy him.

In many respects, fire support for the pursuit is similar to that for the exploitation. The main differences are explained by the single goal of the pursuit, which is to destroy the enemy. Forces conducting a pursuit continue direct pressure on a broad front against the enemy with one element. Another highly mobile encircling element cuts the enemy's retreat to intercept and destroy him. If the encircling force cannot outdistance the enemy, it attacks the enemy's main body on its flanks. While rapid advances on multiple routes characterize operations in the pursuit, the objective is to bring the elements together to destroy the enemy.

The fire support system must be flexible enough to allow independent support for both the direct pressure force and the encircling force during the pursuit. It must still allow coordinated employment to destroy the enemy after he is trapped.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

FSCOORD considerations unique to the pursuit are listed in the following paragraphs.

 

Fire Support Tasks. FSCOORD fire support tasks unique to the pursuit are to:

• Provide both the direct pressure and encircling forces with highly responsive fire support (refer to figure 20).
• Make air support highly responsive.
• Provide fires to slow the retreating enemy and preclude a reinforcing enemy from closing.
• Fix the bypassed enemy by fires until follow-on friendly forces can deal with them.

 

Command and Control. FSCOORD command and control considerations for the pursuit are:

• Decentralize organization of FA to increase responsiveness.
• Consider attachment of FA assets.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. Because planning time is limited in the pursuit, the FSCOORD should conduct informal planning. Other planning and coordination aspects of the pursuit are to:

• Redistribute long-ranged/retrans communications equipment to facilitate long-ranged operations.
• Plan for increased POL/ammunition usage.
• Position artillery/mortars far forward and displace continually.

• Place fire support coordinating measures well forward.
• Plan on-order measures. A restrictive fire line (RFL) is required between direct pressure and encircling forces.
• Plan scatterable mines to block the retreating enemy and preclude a reinforcing enemy from closing.

You have now learned about fire support planning considerations for the offensive operations. The next learning event will discuss these considerations for defensive operations.

 

Learning Event 2:
IDENTIFY THE FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS AND PROCEDURES FOR DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS

In the defense, a strong balance of fire support is necessary. Anticipated areas of the enemy's main effort are allocated fire support.

 

FIRE SUPPORT IN DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS

General Defensive Considerations

Defensive operations are conducted for one or more of the following reasons. Each requires integrated fire support to succeed.

• Defeat the enemy attack.
• Gain time.
• Concentrate forces elsewhere.
• Wear down the enemy to regain the offensive.
• Control terrain.
• Retain tactical, strategic, or political objectives.

The role of the fire support system in defensive operations is to support corps and division in fighting a unified AirLand Battle within an organizational framework that consists of:

• A covering force operation to support the main effort.
• A main effort in the main battle area (MBA).
• A deep battle operation in the area of influence forward of the FLOT.
• Reserve operations to support the main effort.
• Rear area protection/combat operations.

The fire support system supports these operations by:

• Providing conventional, nuclear, and chemical fires at the desired time and place.
• Destroying, neutralizing, or suppressing enemy direct/indirect fire weapons.
• Suppressing enemy antitank weapon systems.
• Providing illumination and smoke.
• Isolating enemy echelons with fires.
• Suppressing enemy air defense, command and control facilities, and logistic sites.
• Delivering scatterable mines.
• Locating enemy targets with available target acquisition assets.

The overall defensive effort is based on the factors of METT-T. The commander allocates forces and resources within the elements of the organizational framework. A successful defensive action at any level requires the use of initiative, depth, agility, and synchronization.

 

Initiative. All uses of initiative by a defender are geared toward shifting from the defensive to the offensive.

 

Depth. The defender attacks the enemy force throughout the depth of his attack formations to delay and disorganize him.

 

Agility. This is displayed through flexible uses of fire, maneuver, and electronic warfare in an attempt to keep the attacker off-balance.

 

Synchronization. This is the blending of all resources into a well-coordinated defensive action.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

In coordinating fire support for the defense, as in the offense, the FSCOORD should focus on these considerations:

• Fire support tasks.
• Command and control.
• Fire support planning and coordination.

 

Fire Support Tasks. In general, the fire support tasks for the defense are to:

• Disorganize, delay, and weaken the enemy before the attack begins.
• Strip away enemy air defense and reconnaissance.
• Strike the enemy formations as the enemy attacks.
• Deny the enemy use of chosen approaches.
• Canalize enemy formations.
• Suppress enemy direct and indirect fire weapons (to include suppression of enemy air defenses [SEAD] and counterfire).

 

Command and Control. The vagueness of the initial situation in the defense dictates that the supported commander maintain more centralized control of his fire support. This is done by assigning field artillery firing units tactical missions that retain fire planning, priority of fires, and positioning authority at higher levels. This will ensure responsiveness by those units in massing and shifting of fires.

As a minimum, each committed maneuver brigade-size force should have the support of at least one field artillery battalion. Most of the allocated air support sorties are retained at division and corps levels for use at critical times and in critical areas.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. General defensive considerations for fire support planning and coordination are to:

• Plan permissive fire support coordinating measures close enough to open up as much of the battlefield as possible. It must also be far enough away to avoid interference with the friendly operation.
• On the basis of the commander's attack guidance, engage critical targets defined during the targeting process.
• Position indirect fire systems to maximize range capabilities and avoid being overrun during enemy successes. This is called lateral repositioning.
• Stress maximum use of wire communications.
• Pre-position ammunition stocks and prepare subsequent FA and mortar firing positions for occupation.
• Coordinate survey requirements for subsequent FA and mortar firing positions.
• Plan the use of scatterable mines to canalize or slow the enemy attack.
• Plan/coordinate schedules of fire to block/halt the enemy attack and to destroy an enemy congested at minefields/obstacles.
• Use Copperhead to defeat armored vehicles, fortified positions, and tactical landmarks, such as bridges.

 

Types of Defensive Operations.

All defensive operations assume the characteristics of one or more of the following:

• Covering force.
• Main battle.
• Deep attack.
• Rear area combat operations.
• Retrograde operations.

 

COVERING FORCE AREA DEFENSE

The covering force area (CFA) extends from the forward line of own troops (FLOT) (or line designated by the force commander) back to the forward edge of the main battle area (FEBA) in the main battle area (MBA). Usually, this area is deep enough to develop the situation and determine the enemy's intent. The mission of the covering force is to:

• Gain and maintain contact with attacking enemy forces.
• Develop the situation.
• Delay or defeat the enemy's leading fighting forces.

When a strong covering force has been established, it may be tasked to fight a major battle to destroy leading enemy formations. It also causes the commitment of follow-on battalions or regiments, thereby disrupting and divulging the enemy's main attack.

A division covering force must be highly mobile. It may consist of a number of battalion-sized task forces formed of armored cavalry, tanks with mechanized infantry, attack helicopters, antitank weapons, air defense engineers, and substantially increased fire support assets. A covering force may be organized from corps or division assets or from brigade assets if terrain precludes control by a higher headquarters.

The three variables that influence the decision as to who will exercise control are:

• Depth of the area.
• Width of the sector.
• Availability of control headquarters.

When the covering force is established by a division, the division will control the covering force. This requires that control of the covering force battle be passed to forward committed brigades at a reasonable distance forward of the main battle area. In determining where to exchange this control, prime considerations include the nature of the terrain and the ability of the MBA brigades to coordinate fire in support of the covering force. Other considerations include the flow of the battle, enemy pressures, and communications capabilities to provide positive control over covering forces.

The entire covering forces should not be withdrawn automatically when the first enemy units reach the FEBA. Covering force elements remaining forward can continue surveillance, upset the attacker's coordination, and enhance counterattacks forward of the FEBA.

Fire support personnel at all levels plan fires to engage targets, beginning well forward of their initial delay positions and extending back into the MBA.

Artillery support is organized for combat and controlled to provide maximum support to the covering force area. At the same time, however, it must maintain a degree of flexibility to ensure a smooth transition to the MBA mission. Use of general support (GS) and general support reinforcing (GSR) missions makes artillery more responsive to the force commander, allowing him to influence the action throughout the zone.

Fire planning and placement of the fire support coordinating measures should provide maximum coordinated and continuous support for the force. At the same time, it must provide a reasonable safeguard for friendly forces from friendly fires. For example, successive coordinated fire lines (CFLs) are planned and disseminated. They are then placed into effect on order as the CFA battle progresses. In the defense, CFLs should be placed as close to friendly forces as the situation permits.

All available target acquisition devices are keyed to acquire targets and pass the target information as early as possible to the controlling headquarters for processing and timely engagement. Usually, target acquisition and cannon assets are placed as far forward in the zone as possible to facilitate early reaction. Cannon units designated to provide primary support to the MBA forces are initially positioned in forward supplementary positions. This is done so they can be responsive to the CFA artillery units if necessary. Positioning and displacements of all artillery and target acquisition assets must be carefully controlled by the force FA headquarters to maintain maximum continuous artillery support forward at all times.

Through thorough planning, communications, and coordination, continuous support is maintained, allowing a smooth transition from phase to phase of the operation.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

FSCOORD considerations unique to support of the covering force are listed in the following paragraphs.

 

Fire Support Tasks. Tasks to support the covering force are to:

• Engage early to strip away enemy reconnaissance elements and disrupt his intelligence-gathering effort.
• Engage the enemy with deep fires beyond the CFA to create confusion and cause him to deploy early.
• Provide adequate and continuous close support committed units (normally FA battalion to maneuver battalion).
• Maintain close interface between FSEs to facilitate a smooth handoff of the battle when the covering force conducts a passage of lines through the FEBA into the MBA.
• Use COLTs to overwatch likely avenues of approach. These teams provide early warning, range finding, and target designation capabilities for economy-of-force purposes.
• Use all available FA to support the covering force fight.

 

Command and Control. Command and control functions in support of a covering force include these considerations:

• The MBA force FA should be used to add weight to the covering force. MBA force fires are responsive to the covering force FA needs until change of command and control.
• An FA battalion normally provides support to a maneuver battalion.
• Assign on-order missions to all FA units in the covering force to facilitate egress to the MBA.
• Provide for rapid transition of artillery responsibilities from the CFA force artillery headquarters when two distinct headquarters are involved.
• CFA artillery organization should be of representative calibers.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. Planning and coordination for covering force operations should be made as formal and detailed as possible. The FSCOORD should:

• Plan fires to strip reconnaissance elements and to slow, stop, or canalize enemy attacks/movements.
• Plan and coordinate routes, positions, ammunition, control of fires, and communications lines to the MBA.
• Coordinate displacement of CFA FA units to ensure continuous fire support to the covering force maneuver units.
• Position FA units far forward to attack lead enemy reconnaissance elements and enemy formations as they are acquired.
• Plan, coordinate, and disseminate permissive fire support coordinating measures to facilitate rapid engagement of enemy forces.
• Prepare subsequent FA and mortar positions for occupation.

• Plan for the use of scatterable mines to canalize the enemy into preferred avenues of approach/engagement areas and to block/slow enemy follow-on forces.
• Use COLTs to facilitate engagement of enemy armor on likely avenues of approach or on the flanks during economy of force operations.
• Plan nuclear/chemical fires on enemy troop concentrations, reserves, and logistical centers on the basis of the political situation, attrition of forces, and environmental conditions on the battlefield.
• Plan CAS on concentrated enemy positions.
• Retain a portion of CAS for immediate requirements to help thwart the enemy's main thrust when it is discovered.
• Plan screening and/or obscuring smoke on/in front of friendly positions to reduce enemy observation and facilitate withdrawal to subsequent battle positions.
• Establish communications procedures and channels to facilitate fire mission requests and coordination during change of command and control and rearward passage of lines.
• Consider pre-positioning ammunition for use by artillery units returning from the covering force area.

An example of a fire support mission in the covering forcearea is shown in figure 21.

 

MAIN BATTLE AREA DEFENSE

The main battle area extends from the FEBA back to the rear limit of the brigade area of influence. The bulk of the defending force is normally deployed in the main battle area to defeat the enemy's main thrust. Usually, the decisive defensive battle is fought either at the FEBA or in the main penetration. Reserves are positioned and maneuvered to destroy penetrating formations and to regain the initiative.

Fire support in the MBA is used to slow, stop, or destroy attacking forces and to enhance the use of mass fires to inflict the greatest damage. MBA fire support planning is refined during CFA action. Therefore, targeting information and intelligence on the developing battle must flow from CFA forces to MBA forces. The MBA sectors are assigned according to the capabilities of defending units, the terrain in each sector, and the mission of the parent force. Usually, these sectors coincide with major avenues of approach. The force making the main effort has the priority of available resources. Defensive plans are flexible to allow changes in priorities when the situation so dictates.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

FSCOORD considerations unique to the main battle area defense are listed in the following paragraphs.

 

Fire Support Tasks. The FSCOORD must consider fire support tasks unique to MBA defense. These tasks are to:

• Mass fires to canalize and slow enemy forces and increase engagement time.
• Plan fires on obstacles to slow breaching attempts.
• Assist maneuver elements in moving and disengaging.
• Plan fires to separate infantry from armor.

 

Command and Control. Command and control considerations unique to the defense of the MBA are to:

• Implement contingency plans when the main thrust is identified.
• Consider use of attached FA brigade headquarters as alternate division artillery tactical operations center (TOC) or assign a mission making it responsive to a force need in the MBA.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. The FSCOORD should plan and coordinate fires to:

• Deny the enemy use of chosen avenues of approach.
• Suppress and obscure enemy avenues of approach and overwatch positions.
• Force enemy armored vehicles to button up and slow down.
• Establish final protective fires for mortars and FA.
• Support counterattacks or counterattacks by fire.

During additional planning and coordinating for fire support defense of the MBA, the FSCOORD should:

• Plan massed fires on enemy avenues of approach.
• Plan the use of scatterable mines to canalize the enemy into preferred avenues of approach/engagement areas and to block/slow enemy follow-on forces.
• Plan fires to cover and close gaps and lanes in barrier/obstacle systems.
• Employ COLTs in overwatch positions. These teams will provide early warning, range finding, and target designation for Copperhead.
• Coordinate immediate close air support to engage major armored formations.
• Plan smoke fires to facilitate disengagement and withdrawal to subsequent battle positions.

Figures 22 through 35 show an example of the steps followed in supplying fire support to a battalion/task force in the main battle area (MBA).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE DEEP ATTACK

The deep attack is a continuous action designed to affect closure time of follow-on enemy elements. It creates windows of opportunity for decisive actions against leading enemy echelons. The primary tools for the deep attack include interdiction (by air, artillery, and special operating forces), offensive electronic warfare, and deception.

Intelligence preparation of the battlefield is used in conjunction with target value analysis (TVA) to enable commanders to attack targets, such as fixed bridges and mobile crossing sights. These cause enemy follow-on elements to "bunch up" and present themselves as lucrative targets. Elimination of enemy combat service support facilities and selected command posts also delays the enemy.

It is important that special care be taken to obtain the effects that will contribute directly to the success of the overall defense. To successfully conduct a deep attack, the FSCOORD, G2, and G3 must cooperate fully to retain a proper emphasis on the deep battle.

Normally, a maneuver deep attack will be initiated from a defensive posture and will be used to upset the enemy's timing and momentum. It will provide an opportunity for friendly forces to seize the initiative and gain the offense.

In the offense, a deep attack is conducted primarily by fire to isolate, immobilize, and weaken the enemy in depth in order to sustain the momentum of the attack. In such an attack, fires are planned to block the movement of enemy reserves.

In the defense, the deep attack may be conducted by fires and/or maneuver forces. In either case, fires are planned to degrade and disrupt the enemy's:

• Attacking echelons.
• Fire support.
• Command, control, and communications.
• Combat support and combat service support.

Lance missiles and battlefield air interdiction (BAI) are the primary tools used to provide long-range deep attack fires. When maneuver elements are used in the deep attack, artillery may be required to accompany the force. When field artillery accompanies the maneuver force's attack, FA considerations include:

• Mutual support must be planned for FA units equipped with automated fire support equipment.
• Extended communications lines will be required between the MBA force artillery and accompanying artillery units.
• Ammunition expenditure will be large.
• Maneuver force assistance may be needed to ensure security and survivability of FA units.
• Target acquisition and intelligence gathering assets will be taxed because of distance, frequency, and speed of moves.
• Logistical support, to include recovery, repair, and resupply, will constrain the force.
• Mobility of FA units must match that of the maneuver force.
• Command and control problems are inherent in any force operating at extended ranges from its parent organization.
• Simultaneous interdiction fires using long-range weapon systems must be planned to add weight to the attack.

Initially, the deep attack force will have to rely on the main battle area force for most of its fire support. BAI and suppression of enemy air defense missions must be accomplished to prepare the route of advance and to ensure either local air superiority or parity. Attack helicopters may be required to provide convoy protection. Offensive electronic warfare will be necessary to prevent the enemy from effectively redeploying to meet the deep attack force. Implementation of tactical deception measures to cover development of the deep attack force will help ensure surprise of the operation.

When the deep attack force has outdistanced the MBA artillery, organic mortars, accompanying artillery, and CAS will provide the preponderance of fire support for the force.

 

REAR AREA COMBAT

The purpose of rear area combat operations (RACO) is to prevent, neutralize, or destroy enemy threats to units, activities, and installations in the rear area. The rear area is defined as the area to the rear of the MBA in which supply, maintenance support, communications centers, and administrative echelons are located. A division's rear area runs from bridge rear boundaries to the division rear boundary. A corps rear area is located between the division rear boundary and the corps rear boundary.

Attacks on rear area installations are categorized as follows:

• Level 1. Attacks by agents, saboteurs, and terrorists.
• Level 2. Diversionary operations and sabotage by small tactical units.
• Level 3. Attacks by airborne, air assault, or amphibious forces and penetrating ground units.

Rarely will there be enough fire support to meet the needs of the MBA force and the RACO actions simultaneously. Division and corps commanders must apportion their fire support to meet the most critical needs.

The principal means of fire support normally available to support rear area operations are mortars, field artillery, and aircraft. In those areas near a coast line, naval gunfire support may be available.

For some rear area actions, field artillery with 6400-mil firing capability positioned within the MBA may be able to support RACO actions from their current positions. Other actions may require supplementary positions from which artillery can provide support. Routes to these positions are reconnoitered. Firing positions are prepared as time and the situation permits. Communications arrangements for fire support are planned. Maneuver elements assigned to rear area operations will have their FISTs and fire support sections in place. This gives them FSCOORDs at levels through brigade size forces.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

The FSCOORD considerations unique to rear area combat operations are listed in the following paragraphs.

 

Fire Support Tasks. Fire support tasks unique to rear area combat operations are to:

• Establish liaison with the supported rear area force headquarters or the rear area operations center (RAOC).
• Select and prepare supplementary positions for indirect fire weapons, if needed.
• Arrange survey control for rear area positions for indirect fire weapons.
• Determine future FA ammunition considerations for rear area combat operations (RACO) action.

 

Command and Control. Fire support agencies committed to support rear area forces are designated by on-order missions. A liaison team must be established with force RAOC to facilitate planning and coordination of fire support.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. In planning and coordinating fire support for rear area combat operations, the FSCOORD should:

• Integrate fire support into rear area battle plans.
• Plan fires and targets in the rear area.
• Select routes by which field artillery can move to supplementary positions.

You have just learned about the fire support planning considerations and procedures for defensive operations. The use of depth, agility, and synchronization play a large part on the overall defensive effort. Your next learning event will cover fire support planning considerations and procedures for retrograde, military operations on urbanized terrain (MOUT), and other operations.

 

Learning Event 3:
IDENTIFY THE FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS AND PROCEDURES FOR RETROGRADE OPERATIONS, MILITARY OPERATIONS ON URBANIZED TERRAIN (MOUT), AND OTHER OPERATIONS

Retrograde is the movement of a command to the rear or away from the enemy. It may be forced by the enemy or be voluntary.

 

TYPES OF RETROGRADE

Retrograde may be necessary when:

• Friendly forces are insufficient to attack or defend making it necessary to exchange space for time.
• The command is to be employed elsewhere or in a better position.
• Continuation of an operation no longer promises success.
• The purpose of an ongoing operation has been achieved.

Retrograde operations are often conducted across wide frontages under dynamic and frequently vague conditions. Such operations place severe strain on communication systems. Control and coordination are difficult. Since a force in the retrograde is usually greatly outnumbered, skillful application of fire support is essential. Field artillery in support of retrograde operations must be as mobile as the supported force. The three types of retrograde actions are the delay, withdrawal, and retirement. The type of action employed will depend on the purpose of the rearward movement.

 

Delaying Operations

Delaying operations occur when forces are insufficient to attack or defend. They also occur when the defensive plan calls for drawing the attacker into an unfavorable situation. In delaying operations, units trade space for time in order to:

• Reestablish the defense.
• Cover a defending or withdrawing unit.
• Protect a friendly unit's flank.
• Participate in an economy of force effort.

The two types of delay operations are shown in figures 36 and 37.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

The FSCOORD considerations unique to delaying operations are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. For delaying operations, the FSCOORD should consider these fire support tasks:

• Attack enemy forces far forward.
• Assist maneuver elements in disengagement.
• Support limited counterattacks by fire.
• Cover obstacles, barriers, gaps, and flanks with fires and scatterable mines.
• Provide maximum continuous fires for maneuver forces as they displace to the rear.
• Mass fires to slow the enemy as he deploys to concentrate for attack of delay positions.

 

Command and Control. In delaying operations, decentralized control is preferred. In some cases, attachment of an FA may be necessary. When attached, the FA is weighted to enhance the combat power of the force.

 

Fire Support and Planning Coordination. Initially, fire support assets are positioned to exploit range. Later, they should be echelon in depth to provide maximum continuous fire. As part of fire support planning and coordination, the FSCOORD should also plan fires:

• On barriers and natural obstacles.
• To create obstacles with scatterable mines.
• To support strong points.
• To cover and screen withdrawals. Smoke will be used extensively.
• To support hasty counterattacks.
• On enemy forces congested behind obstacles/minefields and to slow breaching attempts.

Use immediate close air support to assist in disengagements and to slow advancing enemy forces.

Employ O/L teams in overwatch positions to designate laser- guided munitions.

 

Withdrawal Operations

In a withdrawal under enemy pressure (figure 38), the supported force must fight to disengage. The main body disengages and moves to the rear using fire and maneuver. A covering force remains in place to cover the main body's withdrawal. The covering force then disengages on its own and rejoins the main body.

The mission of this overwatch force is to provide security for the withdrawing unit and to deceive the attacker by simulating normal fires, radio traffic, and other activities.

The support field artillery must consider leaving a portion of its weapons forward to provide fires for the overwatch force. When practical, these FA units should be of representative caliber to provide ammunition options for engagement of enemy forces.

A withdrawal not under pressure requires the effective use of security. Its success depends primarily on deception and speed of execution. It may be accomplished by stealth, in conjunction with a nuclear or ground attack, or any other event that diverts the enemy's attention.

Successful withdrawals are normally limited to periods of darkness or poor visibility. The withdrawing force must make plans to conduct the operation under pressure if surprise is lost. Fires to support this type of withdrawal are planned as they are for a withdrawal under enemy pressure, but are kept on-call in case surprise is lost.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

FSCOORD considerations unique to withdrawal operations are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. Among the fire support tasks unique to withdrawal operations, the FSCOORD must consider the types of ammunition to support the withdrawal. He should:

• Use smoke to screen friendly withdrawal.
• Use HE and DPICM to suppress direct fire weapons and slow obstacle/minefield breaching attempts.
• Use scatterable mines to block enemy pursuit.

He should also ensure that FA is weighed to enhance combat power of the force.

Command and control for a withdrawal is similar to that of a delaying operations.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. Plans and orders must be prepared for the withdrawal. These should cover:

• Subsequent positions to be occupied.
• Routes to be used in the withdrawal.
• Times and priorities for withdrawal of fire units.

Provision must be made for security force fire support to assist disengagement. Smoke will be used extensively. Other planning and coordination considerations parallel those for a delaying operation.

 

Retirement Operations

A retirement is a retrograde operation in which a force that is not engaged conducts either a tactical or an administrative move to the rear. In a retirement, FA battalions are given general support missions for direct support to their associated brigades. To facilitate execution of on-order missions, FA battalions with on-order DS missions are sequenced to move with their associated maneuver brigades.

 

FIRE SUPPORT FOR OTHER OPERATIONS

Purpose of Other Operations

Other tactical operations conducted for a wide range of purposes are routinely undertaken during offensive, defensive, and retrograde actions. Each of these operations will usually require fire support. They may involve special considerations for the FSCOORD. This section will address fire support unique to:

• Relief in place.
• Forward and rearward passages of lines.
• Security and reconnaissance operations.
• Encircled forces.
• Linkup operations.
• River crossings.
• Air assault operations.

NOTE: The provision of STANAG 2082 pertaining to the fire support responsibilities and tasks are implemented in this section.

 

Relief in Place

Supported maneuver forces conduct a relief in place to remove units from combat. Two options exist for the use of FA fires during a relief in place.

The first option is to retain the FA fires of the outgoing force until the latest possible moment. This option enables the outgoing force to continue firing in support for the duration of the operation.

The second option occurs if the relief is deliberate and spread across several days. In this case, some of the outgoing FA may be relieved each day. When practical, field artillery being relieved stays in place until all maneuver units of the outgoing force have been relieved.

If the relief is for the purpose of continuing the attack, field artillery from both the outgoing and incoming forces remains in support.

The following principles apply to all relief operations:

• The relief section remains under the control of the outgoing commander until all his forward elements are relieved.
• Normally, the CP of the incoming commander is collocated with that of the outgoing commander. Both commanders are collocated at the relief.
• Liaison and communications between outgoing and incoming FSEs are established.
• SOPs are exchanged by outgoing and incoming units.
• Existing fire plans are passed to the incoming FSCOORD.
• Arrangements are made for the exchange of equipment/supplies.
• Routes and times for the withdrawal of the outgoing field artillery are established.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

FSCOORD considerations unique to the relief in place are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. The FSCOORD must:

• Arrange for an exchange of outgoing and incoming FSE liaison personnel.
• Provide incoming field artillery with existing fire plans.
• Determine the need for smoke and other types of ammunition.
• Establish how the outgoing field artillery will be relieved.
• Establish how the outgoing field artillery will contribute.

 

Command and Control. If the outgoing field artillery and the supported command are relieved at the same time, responsibility for fire support passes at the time of that relief. If command of the field artillery and command of the supported maneuver units are passed at different times, the passing of fire support responsibilities is mutually agreed upon by the two FSCOORDs unless otherwise directed.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. The outgoing force passes fire plans to the incoming force so that plans can be continued. Other fire support planning and coordination FSCOORD considerations are to:

• Prepare and disseminate plans to support the incoming force.
• Make available to all concerned fire planning SOP items of the incoming force.
• Make arrangements for the incoming force to use targeting lists and means of the outgoing force.
• Ensure that fires have been planned to support/emplace a barrier or an obstacle to slow an advancing enemy. This may include using scatterable mines.
• Use COLTs in overwatch positions to designate for laser guided munitions.
• Plan smoke fires to screen friendly movements.

 

Passages of Lines

The passage of lines may be a forward or a rearward passage. A forward passage of lines is an operation in which supported elements attack through another maneuver force that is already in contact with the enemy. A rearward passage of lines is an operation in which a unit effecting the rearward movement passes through the sector of a unit occupying a defensive position to the rear.

The planning and execution procedures for a rearward passage of lines are the same as those described earlier for the withdrawal of a covering force through an MBA force in the defense. Fire support by the unit in place is critical to the withdrawing unit. Use of FA liaison and communications channels facilitate this support. Many of the considerations that apply to the relief also apply to passage of lines. FSCOORD considerations in both forward and rearward passages are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. FSCOORD fire support tasks are to:

• Establish a time for the change in fire support responsibilities. This time must correspond to the time of the change in maneuver commanders.
• Establish areas for the passage. Concentrate combat power in those areas.
• Establish fire support assistance required from the outgoing force and assign tasks.
• Establish need for secrecy.
• Make plans for tactical cover and concealment.

 

Command and Control. Fire support responsibilities may be passed to the incoming FSE before passage starts.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. The FSCOORD should plan and coordinate fire support so that:

• The outgoing force passes its fire plans to the FSE of the incoming force.
• The incoming FSE passes fire support requirements to the outgoing FSE and disseminates any new fire control measures to be used.
• The target acquisition means of the outgoing force reinforce those of the incoming force.
• Fire request and coordination channels must be planned early to facilitate change of FSCOORD responsibilities at the change of command and control.
• Combat observation/lasing teams (COLT) should be used in overwatch positions to designate laser-guided munitions.

 

Security and Reconnaissance Operations

In the AirLand Battle operations, support maneuver levels require effective security and reconnaissance operations to achieve success. Fire support assistance is required in both security operations and reconnaissance operations.

 

Security Operations

Security is achieved by the detection of the threat in sufficient time and space for the friendly forces to react. Thereby, friendly forces will be able to avoid, neutralize, and/or destroy the enemy. The actions of security forces are guided by the following fundamentals:

• Provide timely and accurate warnings.
• Provide space for maneuver.
• Orient on the locations and movement of the supported force.
• Perform continuous reconnaissance.
• Maintain contact with the enemy.

Fire support may be needed for covering force, guard forces, and screening forces. When these maneuver elements operate beyond the main force, field artillery may be attached to the supported security forces. The force FA commander then becomes the force FSCOORD.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

FSCOORD considerations unique to security operations are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. For security operations, the FSCOORD must consider that fire support must be highly responsive to security forces.

Fire support tasks during security and reconnaissance operations are:

• Fire support means must have the mobility equal to that of the supported force.
• Fire support communications means must be flexible.
• Support for the covering force.
• Secrecy will often dictate the nature of operations.

 

Command and Control. When distance so dictates, field artillery is attached to the supported force to enhance responsiveness.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. The FSCOORD should use these guidelines when planning and coordinating fire support for security operations:

• Fires should be planned to cover the security operations of the force.
• Suppression fires (to include smoke) may be used to screen movements/areas.
• Illumination fires may be needed during night operations.
• Aerial observation and sensors may be used.
• Tactical air reconnaissance aircraft can assist in most operations.
• Indirect fire weapons should be positioned to allow massing of fires in the area of concern.
• Observation/lasing teams should be used as observers and designators for laser-guided munitions from overwatch positions.

 

Reconnaissance Operations

Reconnaissance operations are used to gather information. Fire support contributes to the reconnaissance efforts by using aerial and ground observers, sensors, and radars to gather combat information and intelligence.

FSCOORD considerations unique to reconnaissance operations are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. Fire support assist a supported reconnaissance force by:

• Orienting on the location or movement of the reconnaissance objective.
• Reporting all information accurately and rapidly.
• Assisting the force to retain freedom to maneuver.
• Gaining and maintaining enemy contact.
• Developing a situation rapidly.

Fire support must have mobility equal to that of the supported force. The fire support system must provide sufficient combat power to cause the enemy to react. Reconnaissance by fire efforts may be used to cause the enemy to react. Fire support may also be used to exploit reconnaissance in force successes.

 

Command and Control. Attachment of FA assets to the supported force should be considered to enhance responsiveness.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. These considerations parallel those for security operations. Indirect fire weapons are positioned to support all areas of concern and to come under the protection of the supported maneuver elements.

 

Encircled Forces

Supported maneuver elements cut off from the main force may become encircled. These forces have two options: to defend encircled, or to break out toward friendly forces. Encircled forces require fire support to survive and/or to break out of the encirclement. Field artillery in the encirclement must be reorganized and brought under centralized control. Fire support communications nets must be reestablished quickly. Indirect fire elements may be repositioned to better ensure their survivability and the all-around effectiveness of their fires.

Some of the FSCOORD considerations unique to defense of an encircled force are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. The FSCOORD must reorganize all available fire support. With the force commander, the FSCOORD should determine the most critical areas in the defense, future breakout plans of the force, and the amount of outside help available. Then, fire support should be prepared for the breakout.

 

Command and Control. Centralized control of field artillery assets is desired.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. For defense of an encircled force, the FSCOORD must:

• Plan fires for both the defense and the subsequent breakout.
• Effect coordination with outside contributors to the fire support effort.
• Use fire support for deception, if necessary.
• Establish fire control and safety measures. Restrictive fire lines between friendly forces may be needed.
• Coordinate radar sectors of search for 6400-mil coverage.
• Position encircled indirect fire weapons where they can best support the breakout operation.
• Plan the use of chemical or nuclear munitions if force attrition and the political situation favor their employment.
• Use close air support and precision guided munitions extensively during the breakout.
• Plan mass fires at breakout points to enhance momentum.

 

Linkup Operations

Linkup operations serve to join two friendly forces. The two may be moving toward each other, or one may be stationary.

The controlling higher headquarters of both forces establishes the command relationship between the two forces and the responsibility for each. It also establishes the control measures to be used. The support coordinating measure most common to a corps-controlled linkup is the restrictive fire line.

Forces that are linking up exchange as much information as is practical before an operation. Considerations may include:

• Fire support needed before, during, and after linkup.
• Recognition signals and communications needs for both forces.
• Future operations following the linkup.

FSCOORD considerations unique to linkup operations are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. The FSCOORD must ensure that all fire support personnel know the fire control measures and recognition signals for the linkup. He must also ensure that the fire support personnel are continuously aware of the progress of the linkup forces.

 

Command and Control. Centralized control of fire support is desirable. Communication net must be adequate for the control of fire support at all levels.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. The FSCOORD must plan and coordinate to ensure that:

• Most planned fires are short of the restrictive fire line.
• Targets beyond the restrictive fire line must be cleared for attack by the controlling headquarters.
• Smoke and illumination fires must not cause adverse effects on other friendly forces.
• Fires must ensure that the enemy force between the two friendly forces cannot escape. The use of scatterable mines should be considered to block enemy withdrawal.
• Indirect fire weapons are positioned to allow them to mass fires at linkup points.
• Positions should afford each access to routes to be used after linkup.

 

River Crossings in Offensive Operations

Offensive crossings can be either hasty or deliberate. Each requires fire support. The hasty crossing uses the means at hand. It is a prearranged operation based on limited prior planning. The planning does include, however, ways in which fire support will assist the supported force in maintaining its momentum. The deliberate crossing requires extensive planning and detailed preparation.

FSCOORD considerations unique to both types of offensive crossings are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. For river crossings, the FSCOORD must:

• Make fire support immediately available to crossing forces.
• If necessary, have general support weapons take over DS roles during crossing by DS field artillery.
• Plan smoke and suppression fires in greater than normal amounts, if necessary.
• Follow river crossing SOPs in planning fire support.
• Accomplish long-range planning at corps and short-range planning at lower levels.
• Have indirect fire weapons cross the river with forces they support.

 

Command and Control. Centralized control is desired. Procedures to request, control, and coordinate fires must be designated to provide continuous fire support when habitual close support battalions cross the river.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. The FSCOORD must consider the following factors when planning and coordinating fire support for river crossings:

• Fire plans are based on the type of crossing announced by the commander.
• Plans are commensurate with visibility conditions that will prevail during crossings.
• The width of the crossing area will affect planning.
• Fire plans are made to soften enemy defenses at crossing sites and to seal off far bank positions.
• Aerial observers and aerial sensors contribute heavily to the targeting effort.
• Indirect fire weapons are positioned close to the river obstacle in the offense in order to extend their fires on the far side.
• Far bank positions are occupied when these positions are out of range of enemy small arms fires.
• Smoke is planned to obscure both actual and decoy crossing sites and to screen friendly movements.
• Close air support assists in establishing a beachhead on the far side of the river.

 

Retrograde River Crossings

A river crossing conducted in conjunction with a retrograde operation is divided into three segments, which take place simultaneously. They are the delay, the defense, and the crossing.

The delay allows the main force to retrograde rapidly across the river barrier. It trades time for space. Indirect fire units may be attached to the delay force (elements left in contact). Elements not assigned to the delay execute withdrawal and retirement across the river. They assume tactical missions after the crossing. The delay is continued until the battle is within communications and fire support range at the exit bank defensive area.

A division defensive force consists of elements not engaged in the delay. It is augmented by resources from corps. The defense masses combat power to enable the elements left in contact to complete their retrograde crossing.

In the crossing, the crossing area command ensures a continuous and orderly flow of retrograde elements across the river. Coordination between the delay commander and the defense commander is necessary. A crossing plan supports both the delay and the defense plan.

 

FSCOORD Considerations

FSCOORD considerations unique to the support of retrograde river crossings are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. Most of the considerations for an offensive crossing also apply to the retrograde crossing. Tasks relating to retrograde operations in the defense also apply. Fire support must be available to both the delay force and the defensive force independently.

 

Command and Control. More centralized control is needed for the retrograde crossing than for the offensive crossing. Fire support units attached to the delay force are detached following crossings and rejoin the defensive force. Fire control measures are used to open up and close off areas for the delay and the defense. General support units take over DS responsibilities when DS units cross. Restrictive fire measures ensure the safety of withdrawing elements from adverse effects of fire support weapons systems.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. Many of the following considerations for offensive crossings also apply to retrograde crossings:

• Holding lines are established on defensible terrain between the river and the enemy. These lines preclude enemy direct and indirect observed fires on crossing sites. Fire support contributes to this holding action.
• Fires are rapidly concentrated to allow disengagement and subsequent withdrawal by the elements in contact.
• Defensive fires are planned to assist in successful completion of the retrograde river crossing.
• Scatterable mines may be used to deny approaches to the enemy.
• Aerial observers and airborne sensors are used extensively in this effort.
• After their crossings, target acquisition assets with the delay force usually operate under the defensive force.
• Indirect fire weapons supporting the deadly force take up positions to reach out with long-range fires. They cross with the delay force according to a predesignated schedule. Weapons supporting the defense take over their fire support fires while they cross.
• Weapons supporting the defense are positioned at staggered depths behind the river barrier.
• Smoke fires may be considered to screen friendly movements across the river.

 

Air Assault Operations

Divisions and corps form air assault task forces (AATFs). The AATF is designated for a specific mission; it consists of an infantry battalion and an aviation company. When infantry companies combine with aviation elements, they form air assault teams (AATMs).

Battalion level is the lowest maneuver echelon having adequate personnel to plan and control an air assault operation.

Air assault operations take the form of or support:

• Hasty and deliberate attacks.
• Secure and defend missions.
• Raids.
• Delays.
• Reconnaissance in force operations.
• Exploitation in force operations.
• Pursuits.
• Rear area combat operations.

Some of the FSCOORD considerations unique to air assault operations are listed below.

 

Fire Support Tasks. For air assault operations, the FSCOORD must take the following considerations into account:

• Initially, fire support comes from a source outside the objective area (long-range surface weapons or armed aircraft).
• Weapons moving with the AATF take up positions quickly after landings.
• Because of the heavy demand for aircraft, SEAD support is critical to most operations.
• Smoke may be used for screening friendly operations and for marking purposes.
• Signals for the lifting and shifting of fire support must be known by key people.
• Fires are used to seal off objective areas.

Planning for assault operations is usually done in a reverse sequence. In the reverse sequence, the ground tactical plan, the landing plan, the movement plan, the loading plan, and the staging plan are prepared in that order. Fire support is integrated or considered in each plan.

 

Command and Control. The AATF FSO usually operates in the aerial command post over the battle area. His FSE operates from the ground. Normally, the FSO is best prepared to coordinate fire support from the air. The FSO in the air needs good communications and ready access to all FA assets. Fire support channels must be adequate for air and ground control of fires. The lifting and shifting of fires require close control. If aircraft control measures are used along a flight route, a timing reference for fire support is needed. Usually, the aviation liaison officer assigns an arrival time for each checkpoint. The flight leader informs the aerial CP when his flight reaches a checkpoint. The FSO monitors the progress of the air column so that he can lift and shift fires accordingly.

 

Fire Support Planning and Coordination. Fire planning starts with the receipt of the air assault mission and continues with offensive and defensive fires. It also includes preparation fires for the objective area, SEAD fires for friendly aircraft, and high-angle fires under which aircraft can move.

Fire support coordination must take into account that:

• Flight control measures most commonly include flight routes, flight corridors, and airspace coordination areas.
• An airspace coordination area (ACA) may be used to create "safe boxes in the sky."
• Remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs) may be used if flight routes and objective areas do not exceed their range.
• Use of mutually supporting landing zones (LZ) should be explored.
• Indirect fire weapons may support from a separate (preferably more secure) landing zone.
• Indirect fire weapons may accompany air assault elements landing with them within or near the objective area.
• Long-range indirect fires may be available from weapons positioned with the main force.

 

Landing Zone Preparation

There are four methods of preparing a landing zone. These methods are discussed in the following paragraphs.

 

Field Artillery Marking Rounds on Far Side of Landing Zone. A flight leader reports that the lift flight has reached the initial point. Field artillery, at the direction of the fire support officer, marks the landing zone for a tactical air strike. The forward air controller monitors the fire support officer's fire direction net. He confirms the target location and gets clearance for the strike to start.

Subsequent corrections are relayed through the forward air controller (see Figure 39).

 

Field Artillery and Tactical Air Preparation at the Same Time. To ensure that the preparation fires on the landing zone are adequate, timely, and safe, the fire support officer must establish:

• Reliable communications.
• Positive control over his fire support element.
• Detailed coordination with the aviation element of the supported force.

When naval gunfire is available, it is controlled and adjusted by the fire support officer through naval gun fire (NGF) liaison personnel in the fire support element (see Figure 40).

 

Blocking Fires--Tactical Air, Artillery, and Gunships. Escort gunships provide security for the lift helicopters during the loading, movement, and landing phases. They are used when neutralization fires are needed or when a combination of air and ground protection is essential. If allocated as a fire support means, gunships may be used to soften up a landing zone. At the prearranged time, the aerial weapon flight leader checks into the fire support officer's fire direction net and reports when he is ready for action (see Figure 41).

 

Suppressive Fires by Lift Flight. The lift helicopter flight leader reports his arrival at the release point. The fire support officer causes the air strike to be lifted and indirect fires to be shifted a safe distance from the landing zone. He clears the aerial weapon gunships, which precede the lift (see figure 42) helicopters, to deliver their fires on the landing zone. Once the aerial weapon gunships have delivered their fires, they proceed to a predesignated orbit point to await on-call mission or to rejoin the lift helicopters as they depart the landing zone.

 

MILITARY OPERATIONS ON URBANIZED TERRAIN

The massive growth in urban areas and man-made changes in the landscape will significantly affect the conduct of future battles, especially in western Europe. These areas can no longer be avoided. The defender has the advantage in the use of urban areas. He has superior protection and concealment and covered routes of movement.

The attacker can isolate and bypass some urban areas, but he must attack others. He must fight into a well-defended position. Both attacking and defending forces will take advantage of the cover and concealment offered by urban areas; however, they will be hampered by reduced visibility.

Commanders at all levels must consider the advantages and disadvantages of using urban areas within the overall concept of their operation. The decision to attack or defend an urban area may have political as well as operational impact.

Military operations on urbanized terrain (MOUT) may involve both armored/mechanized and light infantry forces.

 

Categories of Urban Areas

Urban areas can be divided roughly into four categories:

• Small villages (population 1,000 or less).
• Strip areas, general interconnecting areas between villages and towns along major roads and valleys.
• Towns and small cities (population up to 100,000 and not part of a major urban complex).
• Large cities with associated urban sprawl (unlimited population, covering 100 or more square miles).

Each category presents different problems and opportunities to tactical commanders. Small villages and strip areas are the categories most commonly encountered by maneuver companies and battalions. Towns and small cities will impact on the operations of brigades and divisions. Large cities and major urban complexes will affect operations at division or corps level.

 

Weapons Employment

Field artillery, mortars, and air support can be employed on urban terrain.

 

Field Artillery. The presence of buildings more than two stories high will require that high-angle fire be used to attack targets near the bottom of the buildings or in the streets. High-angle fire increases the amount of time required to get the round on target, the probability of acquisition of the firing unit by enemy counterfire radar, and the dispersion of the rounds in the target area.

Except for the M109-series howitzer, and the M110 when equipped with the ballistic crew shelter, FA weapons do not give the necessary crew protection for use in the direct fire mode in an urban area. Masking resulting from emplacement of howitzers in urban areas reduces the flexibility of the weapons to provide complete support.

 

Mortars. The normal high trajectory of mortars makes them excellent weapons for use in urbanized terrain. However, the penetration power of their munitions is limited. Increased use of mortars in urban fighting requires FSCOORD involvement in ammunition forecasting and resupply planning.

 

Air Support. Air support can give the ground commander selective and discriminating fire support. In addition to general-purpose bombs, rockets, cannons, laser-guided bombs, and electro-optically guided missiles are particularly suited for engaging hard targets. If possible, an airborne forward air controller should control strike aircraft from his better vantage point. However, ground FACs or FIST personnel trained to control close air support in emergencies can assume the task.

 

Munitions Effects

The effects of improved conventional munitions (ICM) and HE with variable time (VT) fuzes are severely reduced by structures. However, these munitions are effective against personnel on rooftops. High-angle fire with delay fuzing is required to penetrate buildings. Illumination, incendiary, and chemical munitions are especially effective. They are valuable in forcing the enemy out into open spaces. Smoke is used to screen movement and obscure enemy observations. Ammunition expenditures will be heavy, especially if preparatory fires are used to a great degree.

Laser-guided and other precision guided munitions permit destruction of targets with minimum rubbling of adjacent buildings. However, tall structures will not adequately reflect laser energy, thereby precluding proper activation of sensors on laser-guided warheads.

 

Observations

Ground observation will be limited. Observers on the ground should be assisted by aerial observers or air cavalry units. Observation posts can be established in high structures, although survivability conditions may preclude the occupation of rooftops. Multiple observation posts should be used to reduce unobserved dead space areas.

 

Target Acquisition Devices

Effectiveness of target acquisition (TA) devices is somewhat degraded as follows:

• Hot spots picked up by infrared sensors will be numerous and difficult to interpret.
• Side-looking airborne radar effectiveness will be reduced by the masking effect of buildings.
• Overhead aircraft reconnaissance will be vulnerable to enemy air defenses.
• Ground surveillance radar and sensors will be impaired by structures. They can be used to monitor routes into cities and activity along streets, alleys, or other open areas within cities.
• Counterfire radars should be employed to cover likely areas of enemy mortar, cannon, and rocket use.
• Because of unacceptable masking, radars will not normally be emplaced in built-up areas.

 

Fire Support in Offensive Operations

Offensive operations are conducted in three phases.

• Phase I. Isolate the objective.
• Phase II. Assault to penetrate the initial defense and secure a foothold.
• Phase III. Perform clearance operations.

 

Fire Support Tasks in Phase I. Interdict routes of resupply/reinforcement as follows:

• Field artillery delivers remote antiarmor mine system/area denial artillery munition (RAAMS/ADAMs) to close off routes. Copperhead is used to attack vehicles moving on routes. Field artillery and mortar smoke obscures enemy overwatch positions.
• Battlefield air interdiction is nominated by corps to echelons above corps for use on reserve assembly areas to destroy lines of communication.
• Air support attacks harden enemy positions on the edge of or close to the objective area.
• Electronic warfare disrupts enemy command and control and fire direction nets.

Neutralize/destroy overwatch position as follows:

• Mortars and field artillery provide SEAD and mark overwatch positions.
• Air support attacks overwatching bounders, tanks and fortifications.
• Battlefield air interdiction continues attack of reinforcement/resupply forces.
• Electronic warfare continues disruption of criticalcommunication nets.

 

Fire Support Tasks in Phase II. In planning a preparation, the tactical advantages and disadvantages of firing an extensive preparation must be weighted carefully. Preparations have a devastating physical and psychological effect on the defender. However, the increased rubble hampers the offensive operation. Use of laser-guided bombs and projectiles helps limit destruction of buildings adjacent to targets.

The protection afforded the defender by buildings may require extensive use of air support and heavy artillery to neutralize enemy positions. An extensive preparation requires moving ammunition to forward firing positions and prestocking, if tactically permissible. Such logistical actions ensure the availability of ammunition to support clearance operations.

Field artillery and mortars attack enemy indirect fire assets and suppress enemy antitank guided missile (ATGM) positions on the edge of a built-up area. Use smoke to screen the assaulting force and to obscure remaining enemy overwatch positions.

Use of battlefield air interdiction is nominated by corps to echelons above corps to prevent enemy withdrawal, reinforcement, and resupply. Air support attacks hardens positions in the objective area. Electronic warfare jams enemy command and control and fire direction nets.

Field artillery remains outside the urban area during phase II. Control of field artillery is more centralized in this than in other types of offensive operations. Centralization provides flexibility in shifting and massing fires. Attacking brigades are provided their normal DS battalion of field artillery.

 

Fire Support Tasks in Phase III. Air support destroys point targets within the urban area. Laser-guided munitions are used when possible to increase accuracy. Use of battlefield air interdiction is nominated by corps to echelons above corps to isolate the objective area.

Mortars are used extensively to provide close support. The high trajectory of mortar rounds makes them particularly effective in urban fighting. Battalion fire support officers and CO FSOs must monitor mortar ammunition status. They advise the maneuver commander on its adequacy to provide the bulk of fire support as the unit advances through the area.

Field artillery provides counterfire and high-angle fires into the urban area. Individual sections/platoons of field artillery may be brought into the area to provide direct and assault fires.

NOTE

Field artillery are not tanks. When used in the urban area, they must be afforded security and should not be exposed to enemy direct fire weapons, if possible.

Currently, the M109 is the only FA weapon with built-in crew protection from fragments and small arms fire. Because of the masking created by buildings, indirect fires are severely restricted.

 

Fire Support Coordinating Measures. Normally, urban fighting requires use of restrictive measures in the urban area and permissive measures outside the urban area. Corps places the fire support coordination line well beyond the urban area being attacked. Placement should ensure that corps has coordinating authority for the attack of reserves, logistical facilities, and command and control facilities that may support the urban battle.

Brigade or division coordinated fire lines are placed just beyond the far edge of the town being attacked. If the attack is moving only through one edge of the built-up area initially, the coordinated fire line (CFL) may be extended around the sides of the town/city.

On-order CFLs should be planned beyond the initial CFL to support the force once the area has been cleared. These lines are rarely used within an urban area in the attack, since uncoordinated attack of targets may hinder the operation by creating rubble and fires.

A restrictive fire area may be necessary to limit attack to chemicals or munition with limited bursting effects to preclude unacceptable rumbling. For example, a restriction may be placed on the use of 203-mm HE rounds with point detonating fuzes or on the use of WP to preclude fires. If the attack could result in friendly forces converging on each other, a restrictive fire line is recommended to the maneuver commander.

The FSCOORD must coordinate with the G5 and G3/S3 to determine if there are any areas in the town in which no- fire areas must be established. Examples may be refugee centers, key installations needed to support the attacking force, and national shrines.

 

Fire Support in Defensive Operations

Defense in urbanized terrain is similar to that in other types of terrain. When possible, a covering force is established. The urbanized area becomes the main battle area.

 

Support of the Covering Force. Indirect fire weapons are organized as in other defensive operations. Initial FA positioning should be forward of the urbanized area toward the covering force area. Weapons are used to attack enemy reconnaissance elements, to deliver RRAMS/ADAM, and to provide smoke to screen movement of the covering force units.

As the covering forces withdraw toward the city/town, field artillery is displaced, normally by echelon, over planned routes to prepared positions to support the main battle. When possible, field artillery should not be used in built- up areas. Tall buildings restrict its flexibility in delivering indirect fires. If field artillery must be emplaced within the city, position areas should minimize masking, provide several routes of escape, and afford as much cover and concealment as possible.

 

Support of the Main Battle. There are many factors to consider when planning this support. These factors are listed below:

• Suppressive fires are extremely important to degrade enemy attack on forward positions.
• FA-delivered scatterable mines are used to close gaps in obstacle/minefields and to delay enemy forces in predesignated engagement areas.
• Precision-guided munitions are used against high value point targets.
• Air support attacks enemy armor in the assaulting echelon and in overwatch positions.
• Battlefield air interdiction is used to attack enemy follow-on formations, command and control facilities, and combat service support facilities.
• Mortars provide close support as enemy forces move into the built-up area.
• Field artillery and air support create rubble in front of enemy forces as they advance.
• Field artillery and air support deliver incendiary munitions to start fires in areas of enemy occupation. Smoke from fires precludes effectiveness of enemy overwatch.
• Electronic warfare disrupts command and control and fire direction nets.
• The FSCOORD must be prepared to shift fire support to the flanks of the town to prevent any enemy efforts to encircle the area.
• The FSCOORD must prepare plans to counterattack enemy penetrations by fire and to support friendly counterattacks.
• Persistent chemicals are used, when authorized, to create contaminated areas forward of the defense.

 

Fire Support Coordinating Measures. The primary difference between the defensive and offensive battles in terms of these measures is the use of on-order permissive measures within the urban area itself.

Normally, corps establishes a fire support coordination line forward of the covering force area. Brigade and division coordinated fire lines are planned forward of, in, and behind the defended area. Each line should be placed in effect as the last friendly unit withdraws to a safe distance on the friendly side of the new line. Prominent streets and railroad tracks make excellent coordinated fire lines.

Normally, restrictive fire lines are not used in defensive operations, except in support of a counterattack. Restrictive lines are also used when one force is withdrawing toward the position of another friendly force. Free fire areas may be designated or placed on-order.

You have just learned about the support planning considerations and procedures for retrograde operations. Military operations are numerous, and you must know about their effects on your unit and on the enemy. In the next learning event, you will learn about illumination and smoke and how to use them in offensive and defensive maneuvers.

 

Learning Event 4:
IDENTIFY THE FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS AND PROCEDURES FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OF ILLUMINATION AND SMOKE MUNITIONS

As part of the fire planning process, the FSCOORD nominates targets that support a phase of the commander's plan. On these targets, fire is prearranged to ensure responsive engagement when requested. Although some of the planned fires apply only to offensive or defensive actions, others are appropriate to all types of operations and levels of combat.

This learning event will discuss two types of planned fires: the illumination and the smoke missions.

 

ILLUMINATION

Battlefield illumination gives friendly forces enough light to aid them in ground operations at night. Illumination facilitates operations for both the observer and the maneuver unit and harasses the enemy.

Illumination shells have the following uses:

• Illuminating areas of suspected enemy activity.
• Providing illumination for night adjustment.
• Harassing enemy positions.
• Furnishing direction to friendly troops for attacks or patrol activities.
• Marking targets for attack by close air support.
• "Washing out" enemy passive night systems when used at ground level.

 

Employment Considerations

The amount of illumination that is required for a particular mission depends on the observer-target (OT) distance; the conditions of visibility; and the size, width, and depth of the area to be illuminated. By selecting the proper illuminating pattern and by controlling the rate of fire, the observer can illuminate an area effectively with a minimum expenditure of ammunition.

The different illuminating patterns are discussed in the below subparagraphs. The rate of fire for continuous illumination and other information on the employment of illuminating shells are shown in table 5.

 

Illumination. The one-gun illumination pattern is used when effective illumination can be obtained by firing one round at a time. To get this pattern, the observer calls for ILLUMINATION as the type of adjustment and type of projectile.

 

Illumination Two Guns. The two-gun illumination pattern is used when an area requires more illumination than can be furnished by one-gun illumination. In two-gun illumination, two rounds are caused to burst simultaneously in the same place. To get this, the observer calls for ILLUMINATION TWO GUNS.

 

Illumination Range Spread (figure 44). The two-gun illumination range spread pattern is used when the area to be illuminated has greater depth than width as seen along the GT line. Spread illumination causes less shadow than illumination that is concentrated in one place. To get this pattern, the observer calls for ILLUMINATION RANGE SPREAD. The FDC centers the spread over the point indicated by the observer and orients the spread along the GT line.

 

Illumination Lateral Spread. The two-gun illumination lateral spread pattern (figure 44) is used when the area to be illuminated has greater width than depth. To get this pattern, the observer calls for ILLUMINATION LATERAL SPREAD. The FDC centers the spread over the point indicated by the observer and orients the spread perpendicular to the GT line.

 

 

Illumination Range and Lateral Spread (figure 45). The four-gun illuminating pattern is used to illuminate a large area. Four rounds are caused to burst simultaneously in a diamond pattern. This pattern illuminates an area with practically no shadows or dark spots. To get this pattern, the observer calls for ILLUMINATION RANGE AND LATERAL SPREAD.

 

Call for Fire and Adjustment of Illumination

In the call for fire, ILLUMINATION is given as the type projectile, and the appropriate range or lateral spread is given as the distribution.

Range and deviation are adjusted by the use of standard observed fire procedures. The adjustment of the illumination to within 200 meters of the adjusting point is considered adequate because of the size of the area illuminated by the flare. Range and deviation corrections of less than 200 meters should not be made.

The correct position of the flare in relation to the area to be illuminated depends on the terrain and the wind. Generally, the flare should be to one flank of the area and at about the same range. In a strong wind, the point of burst must be upwind from the area to be illuminated because the flare will drift.

If the area is on a forward slope, the flare should be on the flank and at a slightly shorter range. For illuminating a very prominent object, visibility is better if the flare is placed beyond the object so it is silhouetted.

The proper height of burst is that which will allow the flare to strike the ground just as it stops burning. Height of burst corrections are made in multiples of 50 meters. Variations in time of burning between individual flares make any finer adjustment of the height of burst pointless.

NOTE

When using a night observation device, the observer should ensure that the flare burns out appreciably (100 meters) above his adjusting point to keep the device from washing out.

When burnout occurs during descent, the height of burst (HOB) correction is estimated from the height of the flare when it burned out. When visibility permits, the spotting (height of the burnout above the ground) may be measured with binoculars. The HOB spotting (in miles) is multiplied by the observer-target (OT) factor to determine the height of burnout (in meters). This height is expressed to the nearest 50 meters and is sent as a down correction. For example, the flare burns out 20 mils above the ground. The OT factor is 3; 20 mils x 3 = 60 meters = 50 meters. The correction is down 50.

When the flare continues to burn after it strikes the ground, a correction is required to raise the HOB. The length of time, in seconds, that the flare burns on the ground is counted and multiplied by the rate of descent. The product is expressed to the nearest 50 meters and sent as an up correction. For example, the flare burned 23 seconds on the ground; 23 x 5 = 115 (rate of descent for M485A2). The correction is up 100 (correction is expressed to the nearest 50 meters).

 

Call for Fire and Adjustment Under Illumination

When the observer has located a target suitable for HE or other fire, he initiates a call for fire in the normal manner. If no better means of designating the location of the target is possible, the burst center of the illumination can be used as a reference point.

If the observer decides to adjust the illuminating fire and the HE fire concurrently, he prefaces corrections pertaining to illumination with the word ILLUMINATION and those pertaining to HE; for example, illumination, add 200 HE, right 50, add 200.

Once the observer has adjusted the illuminating shell to the desired location, he should control the rate of fire and number of pieces firing. He should reduce the ammunition expended to the minimum required for the observation.

The observer may allow the FDC to control the firing of both illumination and HE by announcing COORDINATED ILLUMINATION in his call for fire. When the illumination has been adjusted to yield the best light on the target, the observer announces ILLUMINATION MARK to the FDC. This notifies them of the exact time the target is best illuminated. The FDC times the interval between the actual firing of the illuminating round and the receipt of the observer's ILLUMINATION MARK.

By comparing this time interval with the time of flight of the HE, the FDC can control the firing of the HE rounds. This is so that they arrive at the target during the period of maximum illumination.

As an alternate method, the observer may request COORDINATED ILLUMINATION and announce the method of control as BY SHELL, AT MY COMMAND. This indicates that both HE and illumination will be fired only at the observer's command. As soon as the FDC reports that the illumination and HE fires are ready, the observer commands the firing of illumination. Then he commands the firing of the HE so that it will impact during maximum illumination of the target. The observer can request the HE time of flight to better coordinate the firing of each round.

If the observer wants to change the method of control to allow the piece to fire illumination when ready, while he commands the firing of the HE shell, he announces ILLUMINATION, CANCEL AT MY COMMAND. An experienced observer may be able to adjust more than one HE round under each ground of illumination.

Because of the amount of ammunition expended, the least desirable method is for the observer to request CONTINUOUS ILLUMINATION. In this technique, the FDC fires illumination continuously (intervals between firing depend on the type of projectile) while the observer adjusts the HE.

 

SMOKE CHARACTERISTICS

When used correctly, smoke can significantly reduce the enemy's effectiveness both in daytime and at night. Smoke, combined with other suppressive fires, provides increased opportunities for maneuver forces to deploy and aircraft to attack frontline targets. This enhances mission accomplishment without catastrophic losses.

Smoke weakens laser beams and inhibits the use of optically guided missiles, such as the Sagger. Smoke is used to obscure or screen. It is also used to reduce the capability of the enemy to deliver effective fires, to hamper hostile operations, and to deny the enemy formation on friendly positions and maneuvers. The effective delivery of smoke by the field artillery at the critical time and place will help the combined arms team accomplish its mission.

The use of smoke at night must not be neglected. Enemy direct fire weapons, such as the Sagger, are equipped with night vision devices. Darkness can bring a false sense of security, which can be disastrous to the maneuver elements.

Whether used in the offensive or defensive operation, smoke can minimize vulnerability and maximize effectiveness.

 

Obscuring Smoke

Obscuring smoke is a smoke screen placed directly on or near the enemy primarily to suppress enemy observers and minimize their vision (refer to figure 46).

Obscuring smoke is also used to:

• Defeat flash ranging and restrict the enemy's counterfire program.
• Obscure artillery OPs and reduce the accuracy of enemy observed fires.
• Obscure enemy direct fire weapons, including wire-guided missiles, to reduce their effectiveness down to zero.
• Obscure enemy lasers to reduce their effectiveness.
• Instill apprehension, which increases enemy patrolling.
• Slow enemy vehicles to blackout needs.
• Increase command and control problems by preventing effective visual signals and increasing radio traffic.
• Defeat night observation devices and reduce the capability of most infrared (IR) devices.
• Increase effectiveness of obstacles.

 

Screening Smoke

Screening smoke is a smoke curtain used on the battlefield between enemy OPs and friendly units to mask maneuvers. It is also used to confuse the enemy as to the nature of friendly operations. (Refer to figure 47).

Screening smoke is also used for:

Screening unit maneuvers. Smoke draws fire. Deceptive screens cause the enemy to disperse their fires and expend their ammunition.

Screening exposed flanks.

Screening area forward of the objective. Smoke helps the maneuver units consolidate on the objective unhindered by enemy ground observers.

Screening river crossing operations. Screening denies the enemy the location of the primary crossing site. Deceptive screen deceives the enemy as to the exact location of the main crossing. (Refer to table 6).

 

Non-Field Artillery Smoke Ammunition and Delivery Means

 

Mortars. Mortars can provide good initial smoke coverage with WP ammunition because of their high rates of fire.

 

Tanks. Tanks firing from overwatch positions can suppress antitank guided missile gunner at 1,500 to 3,000 meters with WP ammunition.

 

Delivery Techniques

Using different amounts of smoke on the battlefield against targets of various sizes requires different gunnery techniques. Use of the two delivery techniques (shown in table 7) does not preclude the use of smoke on other occasions or for different objectives.

The objective of the two prescribed techniques is to obscure the enemy's vision or screen the maneuver element.

 

Employment Considerations

The observer is the normal source of wind data for the target area. He determines the data (head wind, tail wind, or crosswind) on the basis of what he sees and feels. Of the factors influencing the effectiveness of smoke, atmospheric stability, wind direction, and wind speed are the major ones (Figure 50).

 

Atmospheric Stability. The weather conditions, the time of day, and the wind speed all affect atmospheric stability. The observer must be aware of the effect of three temperature gradients determined by the fire direction center (Figure 51).

 

Wind Direction and Speed. The movement of smoke depends on the speed and direction of the wind. Wind speeds ranging from 4 to 14 knots are best for the production of smoke screens. Optimum speeds vary with the type of smoke used.

 

Wind direction influences the desired location of smoke in the target area. To determine the approximate wind speed, the observer can use either the equivalent wind scale table or the grass drop (expedient) method. With the grass drop method, the observer extends his arm downwind and drops grass from his hand. He points his extended arm at the dropped grass on the ground. He then divides the angle (in degrees) between the arm and the body by 4 to determine the approximate wind velocity in knots.

To determine the wind direction in the target area, the observer watches for drifting of smoke or dust, bending of grass or trees, and ripples on water. He must determine the wind direction in relation to the maneuver target line. The wind direction needs to be determined only in terms of crosswind, head wind, or tail wind.

The maneuver-target line is an imaginary line that extends from the maneuver unit to the target. Smoke is generally required when the maneuver unit is at its most vulnerable point along the route of march. Therefore, when planning smoke, the maneuver-target line is drawn from the most vulnerable point along the route of march to the target (Figure 52).

 

Temperature. A rise in temperature may increase the rate of evaporation. This causes the smoke screen to dissipate more rapidly.

 

Humidity and Precipitation. High humidity and precipitation may enhance the effectiveness of smoke. This is particularly true with the improved smoke round.

 

Ammunition

The amount of smoke ammunition in basic loads is limited. Expenditures of smoke ammunition vary considerably with each specific mission. All users must know the amount of ammunition available and how much smoke it will provide. Large requirements for smoke may require redistribution of the basic loads of several units. You can also request an issue of additional smoke ammunition for a specific operation. Combat experience has shown that smoke may not be available to support all smoke requests.

 

Available Means

Before firing a smoke mission, the observer, fire direction officer (FDO), and the FSO must consider the means available. The FIST chief recommends to the maneuver commander whether mortars or artillery should be used. The FDO decides which weapon will fire or whether to have reinforcing units support the mission. The FSO provides tactical information that could affect the fire support available. All assets are limited; for each mission, the decision must be made as to who can best fulfill the requirements.

 

Terrain

The terrain affects the use of smoke. The following rules apply:

• Smoke tanks in defilade so that they lose their sense of direction.
• Smoke seeks low spots.
• Firing smoke on dry vegetation may start fires.
• Do not fire smoke on deep mud, water, or snow. The smoke canisters normally will not function properly.
• Do not fire smoke on steep slopes; canisters roll downhill.

 

Enemy

The following guidelines must be remembered:

• Know and anticipate the enemy.
• Fire smoke on enemy artillery OPs/gunners to reduce their effectiveness.
• Fire smoke and HE on the enemy when they employ from column to line formation. The HE will keep them buttoned up. The smoke will cause maximum confusion.
• Fire smoke and HE on minefields to cause maximum confusion.
• Understand the effects of smoke on friendly positions. Smoke used without sufficient thought and planning reduces the user's effectiveness more than that of the enemy.

 

Command and Control

The maneuver commander for whom the smoke is planned must approve its use. When he issues his plans and concepts for an operation, he should state the guidelines on the amount of smoke that can be used and any restrictions on its use.

To ensure smoke responsiveness, the FIST chief, FSO, and/or FSCOORD must request this smoke planning guidance if it has not been started. The maneuver commander responsible for the operation must coordinate smoke operations with all units participating in or potentially affected by the operation.

The operations officer (S3/G3) is responsible for the integration of smoke into the plan of maneuver. The FSO/FSCOORD must keep the maneuver commander advised on the availability of ammunition and delivery systems. Combat arms troops must be well trained in smoke operations, and comprehensive SOPs must be available to and understood by all. This shortens reaction time.

 

Immediate Smoke

The objective of immediate smoke is to obscure the enemy's vision. Suppression of a small location can be achieved by use of immediate smoke to reduce the enemy's ability to observe. Immediate smoke can be planned, or it can be used after immediate suppressive fire has been found to be ineffective. When immediate smoke is planned, the immediate smoke target is sent to the FDC as part of the target list. Weather conditions must be considered in planning immediate smoke, since a change in wind direction could make the planned smoke ineffective. If immediate suppressive fire is ineffective because of inaccurate target location, the observer may give a bold shift and request that the smoke be fired.

 

Employment Considerations. Immediate smoke should not be requested initially if, by SOP, HE is on the loading tray. Rather than change the ammunition, the observer should request a fire mission that will expend the SOP suppression rounds and then call for immediate smoke. Before firing immediate smoke, the observer must realize that suppression by smoke will not be as immediate as suppression by HE, since it takes time for smoke to build up. Inaccurately placed smoke may still provide obscuration; whereas, inaccurately placed HE may not give the desired results. Although immediate smoke will provide suppression for a longer period of time than will HE, it is effective only against a pinpoint target or a small area target less than 150 meters in diameter.

The type of ammunition to be fired should be dictated by SOP. A suggested mix is two guns with one firing WP and the other gun firing smoke on the first volley. This is followed by both guns firing smoke on subsequent volleys.

Immediate smoke normally is used on a planned suppressive target, or when shifting after immediate suppression with HE has been found to be ineffective because of positioning. Therefore, corrections for deviation, range, and height of burst must be made. The minimum corrections are 50 meters for deviation and 100 meters for range. The height of shell smoke (M116A1) can be adjusted as follows: Ground burst, up 100; canisters bouncing excessively, up 50; canisters to spread out, down 50.

When a mixture of smoke and WP is fired, smoke probably will be effective 30 seconds after the shells' impact, and it will last approximately 4 to 5 minutes. If the smoke is required for a longer period, additional volleys of smoke should be requested.

The adjusting point on which the smoke is placed depends on weather conditions. Under normal circumstances, the point at which it is directed should be approximately 100 meters short of the maneuver-target line and 100 meters upwind of the enemy's location (Figure 53).

If the wind is a crosswind (blowing across the maneuver-target line), the smoke is placed upwind so that it suppresses the enemy's vision along the maneuver target line. If the wind is a head wind (blowing away from the target), the smoke is placed 100 meters short of the maneuver-target line. Care must be used with head winds, since the smoke may blow onto the maneuver element. When the wind is a tail wind (blowing toward the target), the smoke is placed at least 200 meters short of the target to keep the smoke from landing beyond the target.

 

Quick Smoke

The objective of quick smoke is to obscure the enemy's vision or screen the maneuver elements. The quick smoke mission is like a normal HE adjust fire mission in that obscuring the enemy is required, but the urgency of the situation does not dictate immediate smoke procedures.

The mission is begun by adjusting with HE. Then smoke is fired when rounds are within 200 meters of the adjusting point and in fire for effect.

 

Employment Considerations. The quick smoke mission is used to obscure an area up to 600 meters wide. For areas larger than 600 meters, the observer can fire multiple quick smoke missions. Smoke may be effective up to 1,500 meters downwind.

When preparing a quick smoke mission, the observer first determines the nature of the target and the location of the adjusting point (Figure 54). Then he determines the size of the area and the wind direction in relation to the maneuver target line.

To select the adjusting point, the observer determines the wind direction and whether WP or smoke is to be fired to effect.

The FDC must be informed of the target length, the wind direction, and the length of time the smoke is required. The observer sends this information to the FDC as soon as possible (before commanding fire for effect). The observer may extend the time of effective smoke by requesting subsequent volleys.

If the smoke must be effective at a specific time, the observer requests "at my command" and the time of flight. To determine when to order the smoke fired, the observer adds the time of flight to the avenue build-up time of 30 seconds for WP and 60 seconds for smoke.

If the smoke is effective, the observer must decide whether to shift the smoke or to fire HE. If he decides to shift, there may be a break in the screen while new data is being computed.

 

Adjustment. The adjustment is based on the type of smoke.

• Shell Smoke. Shell HE will be used in adjustment until a 200-meter bracket is split. The observer will then request shell smoke. One smoke round is fired, any necessary corrections are made, then fire for effect is requested.
• Shell White Phosphorous. This mission is conducted like an adjust fire mission, with WP in effect.
• Improved Smoke (M825). The M483A1 dual-purpose improved conventional munitions in the self-registering mode will be fired in adjustment. Upon splitting a 200-meter bracket, fire for effect will be requested. No HOB adjustment is necessary with the improved shell.

You have just learned about illumination and smoke and how they are used to support a fire mission. Next, you will learn the phases of preparation fires as well as the purpose and techniques of quick fire support planning.

 

Learning Event 5:
IDENTIFY THE CHARACTERISTICS AND PHASES OF PREPARATION FIRES AND THE PURPOSES AND TECHNIQUES OF QUICK FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING

Planning for fire support must include preparation fires in support of an attack, and quick fire support to provide an expeditious method to orchestrate fire support for an impending mission.

 

PREPARATION FIRES

The preparation is an intense volume of fire delivered in accordance with a time schedule to support an attack. It may include a single fire support means (FA only) or multiple means (mortars, FA, NGF). Normally, fires begin before H-hour and may extend beyond it. Usually, an FA preparation is planned by a direct support FA battalion or higher echelon. Fires may start at a prescribed time or be held on-call until needed. The duration of the preparation is influenced by several factors. These are the number of targets for attack, the fire support assets, and the ammunition on hand.

 

Phasing

A preparation is phased to allow successive attacks of certain types of targets.

 

Phase I. Phase I should provide for early attack of enemy fire support means and observation capabilities, including FA headquarters and command posts. Such an attack degrades the enemy's ability to react with long-range indirect fires and to gain intelligence about the operation.

 

Phase II. Phase II should attack other command posts, communications facilities, assembly areas, and reserves. The goal is degradation of the enemy's ability to reinforce his defense and shift forces to counter our main effort.

 

Phase III. Phase III should include defensive areas in the forward portion of the enemy position areas and targets that pose an immediate threat to attacking troops. The purpose of this phase is to suppress enemy direct fire systems until our maneuver forces have closed with them. Provisions must be made to keep hostile fire support means and other critical targets neutralized throughout the preparation, time and ammunition permitting.

 

Firing

When assigning fire support systems to targets in the preparation, planners should, if possible, ensure that some fire units remain available to attack targets of opportunity.

During the firing of a preparation, a target of opportunity may pose such a threat to the supported force that some fire support units may have to leave the preparation to attack it. If field artillery is directed to do so, the S3 assigns the units to fire on the target of opportunity.

If the fire units are diverted from the preparation, they rejoin the preparation at the current point in time--not at the time they left it. For example, if a unit firing a preparation is diverted to a target of opportunity at H-5 and takes 4 minutes to attack the target, the unit would reenter the preparation at H-1. This means that some targets may not be attacked by fire support assets originally planned for the preparation. The firing unit diverted from the preparation must report to the appropriate FSE those targets that were not fired or were not fired with the scheduled amount of ammunition. This information lets the FSCOORD and the supported maneuver commander make sound decisions for the attack of those targets while ensuring the safety of the attacking force.

Preparations are continually updated to purge old targets and add new ones. The agency preparing the schedule must set a time after which no other changes can be made. This cutoff time varies among units; it is based on training, communications, and scheduling capabilities.

The schedule planner must ensure there is enough time for changes to be sent to firing units, for technical fire direction to be performed, and for ammunition to be prepared and fired. The maneuver force commander, with the advice of his FSCOORD, makes the final decision as to whether a preparation should be fired. This decision is based on such considerations as:

• Will the loss of surprise from the preparation be offset by the damage done to the enemy?
• Are there enough targets and means to warrant a preparation?
• Can the enemy recover before the preparation fires can be exploited?

 

Shift Times. The preparation must begin and end with all fire units that are used in the preparation. No gap (two or more consecutive shift times) in scheduling should occur. Shift time is the interval between the time a cannon unit can have rounds impacting on one target and the time it can have rounds impacting on a new target.

Shift time is affected by many variables (state of training, amount of shift, and type of munition to be fired). For planning and scheduling purposes, a shift time of one minute is established for light and medium artillery; a shift time of two minutes is used for heavy artillery. Any gaps that occur should be filled by refiring phase I targets or targets the maneuver commander has designated as priority targets.

Units participating in the preparation cannot begin firing on targets in a subsequent phase unless they have begun firing on the last target of the current phase. This may not always be possible because some weapons may not have adequate range to fire at targets in all phases. In that case, the weapons are scheduled into the phase that is within their capabilities, rather than being excluded altogether from the preparation. Fires are planned on the basis of the sustained rate of fire for each weapon system. (Refer to table 8 and table 9).

 

 

QUICK FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING

The purpose of quick fire support planning is to provide an expeditious method to orchestrate fire support for an impending maneuver operation. Quick fire support planning techniques are standardized. A quick fire support plan may be originated by:

• A CO FSO to support a company.
• An FSO to support a battalion/task force.
• A DS battalion commander/brigade FSO to support a brigade.

The following table (table 10) shows the sequence of actions and concurrent activities during the planning and preparation of a quick fire support plan. The table is based on actions of a battalion commander and his direct support FSO, but the sequence is similar at all levels.

When the fire support planner has developed the fire support plan, sent the warning order, and given orders for adjustment, he must monitor the progress of the adjustment and be prepared to alter the original plan. For example, he may have to:

• Recommend changes in the priority of targets.
• Recommend a change in the degree of accuracy of adjustment.
• Forego adjustment on some targets and predict them.
• Adjust some targets himself.
• Prepare and transmit the fire support plan schedule.
• Brief the subordinate fire support elements, if appropriate.
• Brief the mortar platoon commander, naval gunfire liaison officer (NGLO), and forward air controller (FAC), when necessary.
• Distribute the fire support plan.

 

Quick Fire Plan Form

DA Form 5368-R (Quick Fire Plan) is the main tool for dissemination of quick fire plan information. Written copies of the quick fire plan are normally produced by the originator, each battery FDC, and the DS battalion tactical operations center. (Refer to figures 58 and 59.)

The originator prepares copies for:

• The maneuver commander.
• Each subordinate maneuver commander.
• Artillery observers and other observers responsible for controlling the fire support plan.
• All firing units, if plans are not sent by radio or wire.

Each battery FDC prepares copies for:

• The battery commander.
• Each FDC involved in the fire support plan.

The DS battalion TOC prepares copies for:

• The battalion S3 or FDO.
• Each battery. Three copies are prepared for each battery. These copies are required only when orders are passed through the FDC and/or when fire units have not been allocated for the schedule by the originator.

 

Schedule

The schedule for a quick fire plan may be passed to FDCs in any manner, provided it is brief, absolutely clear in meaning, and does not violate security. Verbal communication is normal for quick fire planning and is based on the quick fire plan form.

 

Modifications

The maneuver commander is normally the only person who may authorize modifications to the quick fire plan. However, this authority may be delegated to a subordinate or to the FSO. Any subordinate commander may request modification.

When a modification has been ordered, the FSO will issue orders necessary to implement it. The FSO should remember that he must allow time for his orders to be acted upon.

 

Other Quick Fire Plan Assets

The fire support planner decides how many targets can be engaged in the quick fire plan by adding up all the fire units available to him. In addition to artillery, the following resources may be incorporated in the fire plan:

 

Mortars. Details of targets that the mortars are to engage will be agreed on by the maneuver commander and the fire support planner. The fire support planner should brief the mortar officer.

 

 

Aircraft. When both aircraft and indirect fire weapons are programmed to attack the same target, consideration must be given to deciding the position of the aircraft in the attack sequence. For CAS missions, it may be advisable for aircraft strikes to be scheduled first. However, if their time on target cannot be guaranteed due to limited visibility or other factors, indirect fire means should fire first. CAS targets may be identified by:

• The forward air controller or FIST using a laser target marker.
• Firing a smoke round from artillery or mortars.
• Firing an illumination round from artillery or mortars.

 

Naval Gunfire. Naval guns should be controlled through the NGLO; they will be treated like any other fire unit. Naval gunfire spotters may be available for use as observers.

 

CONCLUSION

You have just learned about the considerations and procedures for planning fire support. They include offensive, defensive, and retrograde operations. Also covered were the use of smoke and illumination and the techniques of quick fire support planning.

If you have any questions pertaining to these areas, go back and reread the text. When you are ready, use the link and begin the practice exercise.

 

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Practice Exercise 2