Military

(1) When using the correct technique for passing a window, the soldier stays below the window level. He makes sure he does not silhouette himself in the window; he "hugs" the side of the building. An enemy gunner inside the building would have to expose himself to covering fires if he tried to engage the soldier.

(2) The same techniques used in passing first-floor windows are used when passing basement windows (Figure 2-4); however, the most common mistake in passing a basement window is not being aware of it. Do not walk or run past a basement window, since you present a good target to an enemy gunner inside the building. The correct procedure for negotiating a basement window is to stay close to the wall of the building and step or jump past the window without exposing your legs.

(1) When crossing an open area, the soldier develops a plan for his own movement. (Whenever possible, use smoke to conceal the movement of all soldiers.) He runs the shortest distance between the buildings and moves along the far building to the next position (Figure 2-7, A and B). By doing so, he reduces the time he is exposed to enemy fire.

(2) Before moving to another position, the soldier should make a visual reconnaissance and select the position for the best cover and concealment. At the same time, he should select the route he will take to get to that position.

(1) The most common error a soldier can make when firing from a fighting position is firing over the top of his cover and thus silhouetting himself against the building to his rear, providing the enemy with an easy target. The correct technique for firing from a covered position is to fire around the side of the cover, reducing your exposure to the enemy (Figure 2-9).

(2) Another common error is for a right-handed firer to try to fire from the right shoulder around the left corner of a building. Firing left-handed around the left corner of a building takes advantage of the cover afforded by the building (Figure 2-10). Right-handed and left-handed soldiers should be trained to adapt cover and concealment to fit their manual orientation. Also, soldiers should be able to fire from their opposite shoulders if needed.

(1) The enemy often boobytraps windows and doors. When entering a room, avoid using the door handle. Instead, fire a short burst of automatic fire through the door around the latch and then kick it open. If boobytraps are detected, they should be marked, reported, and bypassed.

(2) Before entering each room, "cook off" a hand grenade by removing the grenade's safety pin, releasing the safety lever, counting by thousands (one thousand and one, one thousand and two), and then throwing the grenade into the room. Be careful of thin walls and floors. Voice alerts should be given while throwing grenades. The MK3 A2 concussion (offensive) hand grenade is the preferred hand grenade during offensive operations, since it will not produce fragments which can go through the wall and injure the soldiers outside and will reduce civilian casualties during precision and surgical MOUT operations. When friendly forces throw grenades, the command is "Frag Out!" When an enemy grenade has been identified, friendly forces shout "Grenade!"

(3) Get in fast and spray the room with automatic fire. As soon as the hand grenade goes off, rush into the room (Figure 2-13), spray the room with fire, and quickly back against a near wall to observe the entire area. The second man enters immediately behind you, engages any targets with a short burst of automatic fire, and then systemically searches the room. Meanwhile, the support party, in position outside the room being cleared, provides outside security.

(4) Always use voice alerts. Voice alerts and signals within the assault team are extremely important. You must always let others in the assault team know where you are and what you are doing. Once a room has been cleared, the assault team yells, "Clear!" to inform the support party. Before leaving the room and rejoining the support party, the assault team yells "Coming out!" When moving up or down a staircases the assault team yells "Coming up" or "Coming down."

(5) Mouseholes measure about 2 feet wide and are blown or cut through a wall so soldiers can enter a building or a room (Figure 2-14). They are safer entrances than doors because doors can be easily booby trapped and should be avoided. As with any entry, a hand grenade is thrown in first.

(1) An enemy who is forced to the top of a building may be cornered and fight desperately or escape over the roof. But an enemy who is forced down to the ground level will likely withdraw from the building, thus exposing himself to friendly fires from the outside.

(2) Various means, such as ladders, drain pipes, vines, helicopters, or the roofs and windows of adjoining buildings may be used to reach the top floor or roof of a building. In some cases, one soldier can climb onto the shoulders of another and reach high enough to pull himself up. Another method is to attach a grappling hook to the end of a scaling rope so a rifleman can scale a wall, spring from one building to another, or gain entrance through an upstairs window.

(1) When throwing the grappling hook, stand as close to the building as possible (Figure 2-17). The closer you stand, the less exposure to enemy fires. The closer the range, the less horizontal distance you must throw the hook.

(2) Make sure there is enough rope to reach the target. Hold the hook and a few coils of rope in the throwing hand. The remainder of the rope, in loose coils, should be in the other hand. Allow the rope to play out freely. The throw should be a gentle, even, upward lob of the hook with the other hand releasing the rope as it plays out.

(3) Once the grappling hook is inside the window (or on the roof), pull on the rope to obtain a good hold before beginning to climb. When using a window, pull the hook to one corner to ensure chances of a good "bite" and to reduce exposure to lower windows during the climb.

(4) The use of grappling hooks is the least preferred method for gaining entry to upper levels of buildings. They should be used only as a last resort and away from potential enemy positions. This method may potentially be used on adjacent buildings offering concealed locations and a connecting roof to enemy positions.

(1) A soldier scaling an outside wall is vulnerable to enemy sniper fire. Soldiers who are moving from building to building and climbing buildings should be covered by friendly fire. Areas between buildings offer good fields of fire to the enemy. Properly positioned friendly weapons can suppress and eliminate enemy fire. The M203 grenade launcher is effective in clearing the enemy from rooms inside buildings (Figure 2-18).

(2) The soldier scaling a wall with a rope should avoid silhouetting himself in windows of uncleared rooms and avoid exposing himself to enemy fires from lower windows. He should climb with his weapon slung over the firing shoulder to quickly bring it to a firing position. He should clear the lower room with a hand grenade before ascending outside the windows. The soldier does this by first loosening the safety pin so he only needs one hand to throw the grenade. The objective upper-story window should not be entered before a hand grenade has been thrown in.

(3) The soldier enters the objective window with a low silhouette (Figure 2-19). Entry can be head first; however, a preferred method is to hook a leg over the window sill and enter sideways, straddling the ledge as shown in the figure.

(1) To set up the rappel site, be sure the rope reaches the bottom. Carefully test the anchor point and inspect to see that the rope will run around it when pulled from below. Pad friction points along the edge of the wall to prevent the rope from being cut.

(2) In the seat-hip rappel, the main friction is taken up by a snaplink inserted in a rope seat fastened to the body. This is a fast method of getting down a wall; it is also used in rappelling from helicopters.

(3) Before attaching the Swiss seat (Figure 2-21) and hook snaplink, tuck your battle dress uniform (BDU) jacket into your trousers -- loose clothing or equipment around the waist may be pulled into the snaplink, locking the rappel.

(4) To rappel, put on leather work gloves and stand to one side of the ropes (when braking with the right hand, stand on the left side; when braking with the left hand, stand on the right). Snap the ropes into the snaplink.

(5) Take up some slack in the ropes between the snaplink and anchor point; bring the ropes underneath, around, and over the snaplink, snapping into the ropes again. (This results in a turn of the ropes around the solid shaft of the snaplink that does not cross itself when under tension. When using a single rope, make two turns.)

(6) Facing the anchor point, carefully back over the edge of the obstacle and lean well out, almost at a right angle to the surface; this is the "L" position (Figure 2-22). Give the signal "On rappel." If the tactical situation requires silence, use planned visual signals.

(7) Descend using the upper hand as a guide and the lower hand to brake. Hold the braking hand behind and slightly above the hip. Brake by closing the hand and pressing the rope against the body.

(8) Continue to "walk" down, looking at the ground over the braking hand. To go faster, push off the wall with a slight hop and descend in bounds with the brake hand extended toward the ground.

(9) Give the signal "Off rappel" upon reaching the bottom, and straighten the ropes. (When silence is required, use a planned signal for pulling on the ropes.)

(10) When the last man is down, recover the rope by pulling on one side of the double rope. Pulling it smoothly prevents the rising end from whipping around and binding the rope. Stand clear of the falling rope.

(1) Ideally, when entering at lower levels, demolitions, artillery, tank fire, antitank weapons fire, or similar means are used to create a new entrance to avoid booby traps. Quick entry is required to follow up the effects of the blast and concussion.

(2) When the only entry to a building is through a window or door, supporting fire should be directed at that location. If no supporting fire is available, LAWs can be employed instead.

(3) Before entering, soldiers throw a cooked-off hand grenade into the new entrance to reinforce the effects of the original blast. When making a new entrance in a building, they consider the effects of the blast on the building and adjacent buildings. If there is the possibility of a fire in an adjacent building, soldiers coordinate with adjacent units and obtain permission before starting the operation. In wooden frame buildings, the blast may cause the building to collapse. In stone, brick, or cement buildings, supporting fires are aimed at the corner of the building or at weak points in the building construction. (Specific lower-level entry techniques are shown in Figures 2-23 through 2-25.)

(1) The construction material used in the building being cleared influences the use of grenades. If the walls of a building are made of thin material, such as sheetrock or thin plyboard, the soldier must either lie flat on the floor with his helmet pointing towards the area of detonation, or move away from any wall that might be penetrated by grenade fragments.

(2) Soldiers should throw grenades in an opening before entering a building to eliminate enemy who might be near the entrance (Figure 2-26). The M203 grenade launcher is the best method for putting a grenade in an upper story window.

(3) When a hand grenade must be used, the soldier throwing the grenade should stand close to the building, using it for cover. At the same times the individual and the rest of the element should have a planned area to move to for safety if the grenade does not go through the window but falls back to the ground.

(4) The soldier throwing the grenade should allow the grenade to cook off for at least two seconds, and then step out far enough to lob the grenade in the upper-story opening. Your weapon should be kept in the nonthrowing hand so it can be used if needed. Your weapon should never be laid outside or inside the building. Once the grenade has been thrown into the opening (Figure 2-27), assaulting troops move swiftly to enter the building.

(5) If soldiers must enter the building by the stairs, they first look for booby traps. Then they throw a grenade through the stairwell door, let it detonate, and quickly move inside. They can use the staircase for cover.

(6) The best way to enter a building is to breach the exterior wall. Again, a grenade must be thrown through the hole using all available cover, such as the lower corner of the building (Figure 2-28).

(7) When a door is the only means of entering a room, soldiers must beware of fire from enemy soldiers within the room and beware of booby traps. Doors can be opened by using the hand, by kicking, by firing, or by using pioneer tools such as an axe. When opening a door, soldiers must not expose themselves to firers through the door. A two-man team should be used when doors are opened by hand. Each soldier should stay close to one side of the doorway so as not to expose himself in the open doorframe. However, it is better to open the door by kicking or firing. When kicking, one man stands to the side while the other kicks (Figure 2-29).

(8) Once the door is open, a hand grenade is tossed in. After the grenade explodes, soldiers move in while firing short bursts of automatic fire. If the doorframe is sturdy and cannot be kicked open, soldiers must shoot the door open or break it down with an axe. The procedure for entering the room is the same as for kicking the door open.

(9) Another way to enter a room is to blast mouseholes with demolitions. In moving from room to room through mouseholes, soldiers must use grenades as in moving through doorways. As they enter the mousehole, they should use the floor or adjacent wall for cover.

(10) While clearing the bottom floor of a building, soldiers may encounter stairs which must also be cleared. Once again, grenades play an important role. To climb the stairs, soldiers should first inspect for booby traps, then toss a grenade to the head of the stairs or the next landing (Figure 2-30). Remember to use voice commands when throwing grenades. Once the grenade has detonated, throw another grenade over and behind the staircase banister and into the hallway, destroying any enemy hiding to the rear. Using the staircase for cover, throw the grenade underhand to reduce the risk of it bouncing back and rolling back down the stairs.

(11) After the stairs have been cleared, assaulting forces move to the top floor and clear it, using the methods already described. Upon securing the top floor, forces move downstairs to clear the center and bottom floors, and to continue with the mission.

(1) Corners of Buildings. The corner of a building provides cover for a hasty firing position if used properly.

(2) Walls. When firing behind walls, you fire around cover -- not over it (Figure 2-31).

(3) Windows. In a built-up area, windows provide convenient firing ports. Normally you would want to avoid firing from the standing position since it exposes most of your body to return fire from the enemy and could silhouette you against a light-colored interior beyond the window. This is an obvious sign of the firer's position, especially at night when the muzzle flash can easily be observed. When properly firing from a window (Figure 2-32), the soldier is well back into the room to prevent the muzzle flash from being seen, and he is kneeling to limit exposure and avoid silhouetting himself.

(4) Loopholes. You can fire through a hole torn in the wall and avoid windows (Figure 2-33). Stay well back from the loophole so the muzzle of the weapon does not protrude beyond the walls and the muzzle flash is concealed.

(5) Roof. The peak of a roof provides a vantage point for snipers increasing their field of vision and the ranges at which they can engage targets (Figure 2-34). A chimney, a smokestack, or any other object protruding from the roof of a building can reduce the size of the target exposed and should be used as shown in the figure.

(6) When the soldier is subjected to enemy fire and none of the positions mentioned above are available, he must try to expose as little of himself as possible. When a soldier in an open area between buildings (a street or alley) is fired upon by an enemy in one of the buildings to his front and no cover is available, he should lie prone as close as possible to a building on the same side of the open area as the enemy. To engage the soldier, the enemy must then lean out the window and expose himself to return fire.

(7) When no cover is available, target exposure can be reduced by firing from the prone position, by firing from shadows, and by presenting no silhouette against buildings.

(1) The natural firing port provided by windows can be improved by barricading the window, leaving a small hole for the firer's use (Figure 2-35). The barricading may be accomplished with materials torn from the interior walls of the building or any other available material. When barricading windows, avoid the following:

• Barricading only the windows to be used as firing ports. The enemy will soon determine the barricaded windows are firing positions.
• Neat, square, or rectangular holes easily identified by the enemy. A barricaded window should not have a neat, regular firing port. The window should keep its original shape so the position of the firer is hard to detect. Firing from the bottom of the window gives the firer the advantage of the wall because the firing port is less obvious to the enemy. Sandbags are used to reinforce the wall below the window and to increase protection for the firer. All glass must be removed from the window to prevent injury to the firer. Lace curtains permit the firer to see out and prevent the enemy from seeing in. Wet blankets should be placed under weapons to reduce dust. Wire mesh over the window keeps the enemy from throwing in hand grenades.

(2) Although windows usually are good firing positions, they do not always allow the firer to engage targets in his sector.

(3) A chimney or other protruding structure provides a base from which a sniper position can be prepared. Part of the roofing material is removed to allow the sniper to fire around the chimney. He should stand inside the building on the beams or on a platform with only his head and shoulders above the roof (behind the chimney). Sandbags placed on the sides of the position protect the sniper's flanks.

(4) When the roof has no protruding structure to provide protection, the sniper position should be prepared from underneath on the enemy side of the roof. The position is reinforced with sandbags, and a small piece of roofing material should be removed to allow the sniper to engage targets in his sector (Figure 2-37). The missing piece of roofing material should be the only sign a position exists there. However, other pieces of roofing should be removed to deceive the enemy as to the true sniper position. The sniper should be invisible from outside the building, and the muzzle flash must be hidden from view.

(5) Some rules and considerations for selecting and occupying individual firing positions are as follow:

• Make maximum use of available cover and concealment.
• Avoid firing over cover; when possible fire around it.
• Avoid silhouetting against light-colored buildings, the skyline, and so on.
• Carefully select a new firing position before leaving an old one.

• Avoid setting a pattern; fire from both barricaded and unbarricaded windows.
• Keep exposure time to a minimum.
• Begin improving a hasty position immediately after occupation.
• Use construction material for prepared positions that is readily available in a built-up area.
• Remember, positions providing cover at ground level may not provide cover on higher floors.

(6) The rifle squad, during an attack on and in defense of a built-up area, is often reinforced with attached antitank weapons. Therefore, the rifle squad leader must be able to choose good firing positions for the antitank weapons under his control.

(7) Various principles of employing antitank weapons have universal applications such as: making maximum use of available cover; trying to achieve mutual support; and allowing for the backblast when positioning recoilless weapons, TOWs, Dragons, and LAWs.

(8) Operating in a built-up area presents new considerations. Soldiers must select numerous alternate positions, particularly when the structure does not provide cover from small-arms fire. They must position their weapons in the shadows and within the building.

(9) In attacking a built-up area, the recoilless weapon and ATGM crews are severely hampered in choosing firing positions due to the backblast of their weapons. They may not have enough time to knock out walls in buildings and clear backblast areas. They should select positions which allow the backblast to escape such as corner windows (Figure 2-38) where the round fired goes out one window and the backblast escapes from another. The corner of a building can be improved with sandbags to create a firing position.

(10) A 90-mm recoilless rifle (RCLR) crew firing from the top of a building can use the chimney for cover (Figure 2-39). The rear of this position should be reinforced with sandbags and could also be used by a Dragon team.

(11) Employ recoilless weapons and ATGMs in streets and other open areas to make use of rubble, corners of buildings, destroyed vehicles, and anything affording cover (Figure 2-40).

They can move along rooftops to obtain a better angle in which to engage enemy armor. When buildings are elevated, positions can be prepared using a building for overhead cover. Care must be taken in placement of the weapons so the backblast under the building does not damage or collapse the building or injure the crew.

(12) The machine gun has no backblast, so it can be positioned almost anywhere. In the attacks, windows and doors offer ready-made firing ports (Figure 2-41). However, the enemy normally has windows and doors under observation and fire during combat, so avoid obvious emplacements. Any opening in walls created during the fighting may be used. When other holes are not present, small explosive charges can create loopholes (Figure 2-42). Regardless of what openings are used, machine guns should be well within the building and in the shadows.

(13) Upon occupying a building, soldiers often board up all windows and doors. By leaving small gaps between the slots, soldiers can use windows and doors as good alternative firing positions.

(14) Loopholes should be used extensively in the defense. They should not be constructed in any logical pattern, nor should they all be at floor or table-top level. Varying their height and location makes them hard to pinpoint and identify. Dummy loopholes, shingles knocked off, or holes cut that are not intended to be used as fighting positions, aid in the deception. Loopholes located behind shrubbery, under doorjambs, and under the eaves of a building are hard to detect. In the defense, as in the offense, a firing position can be constructed using the building for overhead cover.

(15) Increased fields of fire can be obtained by locating the machine gun in the corner of the building or sandbagged under a building (Figure 2-43).

Available materials, such as desks, overstuffed chairs, couches, and other items of furniture, should be integrated into the construction of bunkers to add cover and concealment (Figure 2-44).

(16) Although grazing fire is desirable when employing the machine gun, it may not always be practical or possible. Where destroyed vehicles, rubble, and other obstructions restrict the fields of grazing fire, the gun can be elevated to where it can fire over obstacles. Therefore, firing from loopholes on the second or third story may be necessary. A firing platform can be built under the roof (Figure 2-45) and a loophole constructed. Again, the exact location of the position must be concealed by knocking off shingles in isolated patches over the entire roof.

(1) The techniques of patrolling and using observation posts apply in the city as well as in wooded terrain. These techniques enable units to locate the enemy, to develop targets for direct and indirect fires in the defense, and to find uncovered avenues of approach in the offense.

(2) Most weapons and vehicles have distinguishing signatures. These come from design features or from the environment in which the equipment is used. Some examples follow:

• Firing a tank main gun in dry, dusty, and debris-covered streets raises a dust cloud.
• A tank being driven in built-up areas produces more noise than one moving through an open field.
• Soldiers moving through rubble on a street or in the halls of a damaged building create more noise than in a wooded area.

Soldiers must recognize signatures so they can locate and identify targets. Seeing, hearing, and smelling assist in detecting and identifying signatures leading to target location, identification, and rapid engagement. Soldiers must look for targets in areas where they are most likely to be employed.

(3) Target acquisition is continuous, whether halted or moving. Built-up areas provide both the attacker and defender with good cover and concealment, but it usually favors the defender because of the advantages achieved. This makes target acquisition extremely important since the side firing first may win the engagement.

(4) When a unit is moving and enemy contact is likely, the unit must have an overwatching element. This principle applies in built-up areas just as it does in other kinds of terrain. However, in built-up areas the overwatching element must observe both the upper floors of buildings and street level.

(5) Stealth should be used when moving in built-up areas since little distance separates attackers and defenders. Use only arm- and-hand signals until contact is made. The unit should stop periodically to listen and watch, ensuring it is not being followed or the enemy is not moving parallel to the unit's flank for an ambush. Routes should be carefully chosen so buildings and piles of rubble can be used to mask the unit's movement.

(6) Observation duties must be clearly given to squad members to ensure all-round security as they move. This security continues at the halt. All the senses must be used to acquire targets, especially hearing and smelling. Soldiers soon recognize the sounds of vehicles and people moving through rubble-littered streets. The smell of fuel, cologne, and cooking food can disclose enemy positions.

(7) Observation posts are positions from which soldiers can watch and listen to enemy activity in a specific sector. They warn the unit of an enemy approach and are ideally suited for built-up areas. OPs can be positioned in the upper floors of buildings, giving soldiers a better vantage point than at street level.

(8) In the defense, a platoon leader positions OPs for local security as ordered by the company commander. The platoon leader selects the general location but the squad leader sets up the OP (Figure 2-46). Normally, there is at least one OP for each platoon. An OP consists of two to four men and is within small-arms supporting range of the platoon. Look for positions with good observation of the target sector. Ideally, an OP has a field of observation overlaying those of adjacent OPs. The position selected for the OP should have cover and concealment for units moving to and from the OP. Use the upper floors of houses or other buildings. Ensure the squad leader does not select obvious positions, such as water towers or church steeples, which attract the enemy's attention.

(9) Teach your soldiers how to scan a target area from OPs or from their fighting positions. Use of proper scanning techniques enable squad members to quickly locate and identify targets. Without optics, a soldier searches quickly for obvious targets, using all his senses to detect target signatures. If no targets are found and time permits, he makes a more detailed search (using binoculars, if available) of the terrain in the assigned sector using the 50-meter method. First, he searches a strip 50 meters deep from right to left; then he searches a strip from left to right that is farther out, overlapping the first strip. This process is continued until the entire sector is searched. In the city core or core periphery where the observer is faced with multi-story buildings, the overlapping sectors may be going up rather than out.

(10) Soldiers who man OPs and other positions should employ target acquisition devices. These devices include binoculars, image-intensification devices, thermal sights, ground surveillance radar (GSR), remotely employed sensors (REMS) and platoon early warning systems (PEWS). All of these devices enhance the unit's ability to detect and engage targets. Several types of devices should be used since no single device can meet every need of a unit. A mix might include PEWS sensors to cover out-of-sight areas and dead space, image-intensification devices for close range, thermal sights for camouflage, and smoke penetration for low-light conditions. A mix of devices is best because several devices permit overlapping sectors and more coverage, and the capabilities of one device can compensate for limitations of another.

(11) Target acquisition techniques used at night are similar to those used during the day. At night, whether using daylight optics or the unaided eye, a soldier does not look directly at an object but a few degrees off to the side. The side of the eye is more sensitive to dim light. When scanning with off-center vision, he moves his eyes in short abrupt, irregular moves. At each likely target area, he pauses a few seconds to detect any motion.

(12) Sounds and smells can aid in acquiring targets at night since they transmit better in the cooler, damper, night air. Running engines, vehicles, and soldiers moving through rubble-covered streets can be heard for great distances. Odors from diesel fuel, gasoline, cooking food, burning tobacco, after-shave lotion, and so on, reveal enemy and friendly locations.

(1) Soldiers choose or create positions without large openings. These positions provide as much built-in cover as possible to prevent penetration by incendiary ammunition. All unnecessary flammable materials are removed, including ammunition boxes, furniture, rugs, newspapers, curtains, and so on. Any electricity and gas coming into the building must be shut off.

(2) A building of concrete-block construction, with concrete floors and a tin roof, is an ideal place for a position. However, most buildings have wooden floors or subfloors, wooden rafters, and wooden inner walls, which require improvement. Inner walls are removed and replaced with blankets to resemble walls from the outside. Spread sand two inches deep on floors and in attics to retard fire.

(3) All available firefighting gear is prepositioned so it can be used during actual combat. For the individual soldier such gear includes entrenching tools, helmets, sand, and blankets. These items are supplemented with fire extinguishers not in use.

(4) Fire is so destructive it can easily overwhelm personnel regardless of extraordinary precautions. Soldiers plan routes of withdrawal so a priority of evacuation can be sent from fighting positions. This allows soldiers to exit through areas which are free from combustible material and provide cover from enemy direct fire.

(5) The confined space and large amounts of combustible material in built-up areas influence the enemy to use incendiary devices. Two major first-aid problems that are more urgent than in the open battlefield are: burns, and smoke and flame inhalation which creates a lack of oxygen. These can easily occur in buildings and render the victim combat ineffective. Although there is little defense against flame inhalation and lack of oxygen, smoke inhalation can be greatly reduced by wearing the individual protective mask. Regardless of the fire hazard, defensive planning for combat in built-up areas must include aidmen. Aidmen must reach victims and must have extra supplies for the treatment of burns and inhalation injuries.

(6) Offensive operations also require plans for firefighting. The success of the mission can easily be threatened by fire. Poorly planned use of incendiary munitions can make fires so extensive they become obstacles to offensive operations. The enemy may use fire to cover his withdrawal and to create obstacles and barriers to the attacker.

(7) When planning offensive operations, the attacker must consider all available weapons. The best two weapons for creating fires are the M202 FLASH and the flamethrower, which is currently out of Army inventory but can be obtained by special request through logistics channels. The flamethrower is the better training weapon since water can be substituted for the flame and the effect of the weapon can be measured by the penetration of the water. There is currently no training round for the M202. When using fire in an operation, firefighting support must be available to avoid using combat soldiers to fight fires. Choose your targets during your initial planning to avoid accidentally destroying critical facilities within the built-up area. When using flame operations in a built-up area, set priorities to determine which critical installations (hospitals, power stations, radio stations, and historical landmarks) should have primary firefighting support.

(8) Every soldier participating in the attack must be ready to deal with fire. The normal firefighting equipment available includes the entrenching tool, helmet (for carrying sand or water), and blankets (for snuffing out small fires). Fire extinguishers are available on each of the vehicles supporting the attack.

(1) Special maps, prepared by supporting topographic engineers, can assist units in navigating in built-up areas. These maps have been designed or modified to give information not covered in a standard map, which includes maps of road and bridge networks, railroads, built-up areas, and electric power fields. They can be used to supplement military city maps and topographical maps.

(2) Once in the built-up area, soldiers use street intersections as reference points much as they would use hills and streams in rural terrain. City maps supplement or replace topographic maps as the basis of navigation. These maps enable units moving in the built-up area to know where they are and to move to new locations even though streets have been blocked or a key building destroyed.

(3) The old techniques of compass reading and pace counting can still be used, especially in a blacked-out city where street signs and buildings are not visible. Compass azimuth readings can be thrown off from the high metal content and presence of electrical fields in the city. Carefully observe your compass so you will be aware of this condition. Sewers must be navigated in much the same way. Maps providing the basic layout of the sewer system are maintained by city sewer departments. This information includes directions the sewer lines run and distances between manhole covers. Along with basic compass and pace count techniques, such information enables a unit to move through the city sewers.

(4) City utility workers are assets to units fighting in built-up areas. They can provide maps of sewers and electrical fields and information about the city. This is important especially with regard to the use of the sewers. Sewers can contain pockets of methane gas which is highly toxic to humans, City sewer workers know the locations of these danger areas and can advise a unit how to avoid them.

(1) Buildings provide numerous concealed positions. Armored vehicles can often find isolated positions under archways or inside small industrial or commercial structures. Thick masonry, stone, or brick walls offer excellent protection from direct fire and provide concealed routes.

(2) After camouflage is completed, the soldier inspects positions from the enemy's viewpoint. He makes routine checks to see if the camouflage remains natural looking and actually conceals his position. If it does not look natural, the soldier must rearrange or replace it.

(3) Positions must be progressively camouflaged as they are prepared. Work should continue until all camouflage is complete. When the enemy has air superiority, work may be possible only at night. Shiny or light-colored objects which could attract attention from the air must be hidden. Fires can only be lit in enclosed or hidden areas to avoid being seen by the enemy.

(4) Shirts should be worn since exposed skin reflects light and attracts the enemy. Even dark skin reflects light because of its natural oils.

(5) Camouflage face paint is issued in three standard, two-tone sticks. When issue-type face-paint sticks are not available, burnt cork, charcoal, or lampblack can be used to tone down exposed skin. Use mud as a last resort since it dries and peels off, leaving the skin exposed. It may also contain harmful bacteria.

(1) Soldiers should avoid the lighted areas around windows and loopholes. They will be better concealed if they fire from the shadowed interior of a room (Figure 2-48).

(2) A lace curtain or piece of cheesecloth provides additional concealment to soldiers in the interior of rooms if curtains are common to the area. Interior lights are prohibited.

(1) The need to break up the silhouette of helmets and individual equipment exists in built-up areas the same as it does elsewhere. However, burlap or canvas strips are a more effective camouflage than foliage (Figure 2-49). Predominant colors are normally browns, tans, and sometimes grays rather than greens, but each camouflage location should be evaluated.

(2) Weapons emplacements should use a wet blanket (Figure 2-50), canvas, or cloth to keep dust from rising when the weapon is fired.

(3) Command posts and logistical emplacements are easier to camouflage and better protected if located underground. Antennas can be remoted to upper stories or to higher buildings based on remote capabilities. Field telephone wire should be laid in conduits, in sewers, or through buildings.

(4) Soldiers should consider the background to ensure they are not silhouetted or skylined, but rather blend into their surrounding. To defeat enemy urban camouflage, soldiers should be alert for the following common camouflage errors:

• Tracks or other evidence of activity.
• Shine or shadows.
• An unnatural color or texture.
• Muzzle flash, smoke, or dust.
• Unnatural sounds and smells.
• Movement.

(5) Dummy positions can be used effectively to distract the enemy and make him reveal his position by firing.

(6) Built-up areas afford cover, resources for camouflage, and locations for concealment. The following basic rules of cover, camouflage, and concealment should be adhered to:

(1) When fighting inside buildings, three-round bursts or rapid semiautomatic fire should be used. To suppress defenders while entering a room, a series of rapid three-round bursts should be fired at all identified targets and likely enemy positions. This is more effective than long bursts or spraying the room with automatic fire. Fire from an underarm or shoulder position; not from the hip.

(2) When targets reveal themselves in buildings, the most effective engagement is the quick-fire technique with the weapon up and both eyes open. Accurate, quick fire not only kills enemy soldiers, but also gives the attacker fire superiority.

(3) Within built-up areas, burning debris, reduced ambient light, strong shadow patterns of varying density, and smoke, all limit the effect of night vision and sighting devices. The use of aiming stakes in the defense and of the pointing technique in the offense, both using three-round bursts, are night-firing skills required of all infantrymen. The individual laser aiming light can sometimes be used effectively with night vision goggles (NVGs). Ensure any soldier using NVGs is teamed with at least one soldier not wearing them.

(1) For the 5.56-mm round, maximum penetration occurs at 200 meters. At ranges less than 25 meters penetration is greatly reduced. At 10 meters penetration by the M16 round is poor due to the tremendous stress placed on this high-speed round which causes it to yaw upon striking a target. Stress causes the projectile to break up and the resulting fragments are often too small to penetrate.

(2) Even with reduced penetration at short ranges, interior walls made of thin wood paneling, sheetrock, or plaster are no protection against 5.56-mm rounds. Common office furniture such as desks and chairs cannot stop these rounds, but a layer of books 18 to 24 inches thick can.

(3) Wooden frame buildings and single cinder block walls offer little protection from 5.56-mm rounds. When clearing such structures soldiers must ensure friendly casualties do not result from rounds passing through walls, floors, or ceilings.

(4) Armor-piercing rounds are slightly more effective than ball ammunition in penetrating urban targets at all ranges. They are more likely to ricochet than ball ammunition, especially when the target presents a high degree of obliquity.

(1) The best method for breaching a masonry wall is by firing short bursts (three to five rounds) in a unshaped pattern. The distance from the gunner to the wall should be minimized for best results -- ranges as close as 25 meters are relatively safe from ricochet. Ballistic eye protection, protective vest, and helmet should be worn.

(2) Ball ammunition and armor-piercing rounds produce almost the same results but armor-piercing rounds are more likely to fly back at the firer. The 5.56-mm round can be used to create either a loophole (about 7 inches in diameter) or a breach hole (large enough for a man to enter). When used against reinforced concrete, the M16 rifle and SAW cannot cut the reinforcing bars.

(1) The .50-caliber machine gun is often employed on its vehicular mount during both offensive and defensive operations. If necessary it can be mounted on the M3 tripod mount for use in the ground role or in the upper levels of buildings. When mounted on a tripod, the 50-caliber machine gun can be used as an accurate long-range weapon and can supplement sniper fires.

(2) The M60 machine gun is cumbersome, making it difficult to use inside while clearing a building. However it is useful outside to suppress and isolate enemy defenders. The M60 can be fired from either the shoulder or the hip to provide a high volume of assault and suppressive fires. The use of the long sling to support the weapon and ammunition is preferred.

(3) Because of their reduced penetration power, M60 machine guns are less effective against masonry targets than .50-caliber machine guns. However their availability and light weight make them well suited to augment heavy machine gun fire or to be used in areas where .50-caliber machine guns cannot be positioned, or as a substitute when heavy machine guns are not available. The M60 machine gun can be employed on its tripod to deliver accurate fire along fixed lines and then can quickly be converted to bipod fire to cover alternate fields of fire.

(1) At 50 meters the 7.62-mm ball round cannot penetrate a single layer of sandbags. It can penetrate a single layer at 200 meters, but not a double layer. The armor-piercing round does only slightly better against sandbags. It cannot penetrate a double layer but can penetrate up to 10 inches at 600 meters.

(2) The penetration of the 7.62-mm round is best at 600 meters, but most urban targets are closer. The longest effective range is usually 200 meters or less. The table in Figure 2-53 explains the penetration capabilities of a single 7.62-mm (ball) round at closer ranges.

(3) The .50-caliber round is also optimized for penetration at long ranges (about 800 meters). For hard targets, .50-caliber penetration is affected by obliquity and range. Both armor-piercing and ball ammunition penetrate 14 inches of sand or 28 inches of packed earth at 200 meters, if the rounds impact perpendicular to the flat face of the target. The table in Figure 2-54 explains the effect of a 45-degree obliquity on a .50-caliber machine gun's penetration.

(1) The M60 machine gun can be hard to hold steady to repeatedly hit the same point on a wall. The dust created by the bullet strikes also makes precise aiming difficult. Firing from a tripod is usually more effective-than without, especially if sandbags are used to steady the weapon. Short bursts of three to five rounds fired in a U-type pattern are best.

(2) Breaching a brick veneer presents a special problem for the M60 machine gun. Rounds penetrate the cinder block, but leave a net-like structure of unbroken block. Excessive ammunition is required to destroy a net since most rounds only pass through a previously eroded hole. One or two minutes work with an E-tool, crowbar, or axe can remove this web and allow entry through the breach hole.

(3) The .50-caliber machine gun can be fired accurately from the tripod using the single-shot mode. This is the most efficient method for producing a loophole. Automatic fire in three- to five-round bursts in a U-type pattern, is more effective in producing a breach.

(1) If projected into an interior room, the 40-mm HEDP can penetrate all interior partition-type walls. It splinters plywood and plaster walls making a hole large enough to fire a rifle through. It is better to have HEDP rounds pass into a room and explode on a far wall even though much of the round's energy is wasted penetrating the back wall (see Figure 2-58). The fragmentation produced in the room causes more casualties than the high-explosive jet formed by the shaped charge.

(2) Fragments from the HEDP round do not reliably penetrate interior walls. They are also stopped by office furniture, sandbags, helmets, and protective vests (flak jackets). The M203 dual-purpose weapon has the inherent accuracy to place grenades into windows at 125 meters and bunker apertures at 50 meters. These ranges are significantly reduced as the angle of obliquity increases. Combat experience shows that M203 gunners cannot consistently hit windows at 50 meters when forced to aim and fire quickly.

(1) Light and medium recoilless weapons, with the exception of the SMAW and AT8, employ shaped-charge warheads. As a result, the hole they punch in wall is too small to use as a loophole. The fragmentation and spall these weapons produce are limited. Shaped-charge warheads do not neutralize enemy soldiers behind walls unless they are located directly in line with the point of impact.

(2) Against structures, shaped-charge weapons should be aimed about six inches below, or to the side of a firing aperture (see Figure 2-59). This enhances the probability of killing the enemy behind the wall. A round that passes through a window wastes much of its energy on the back wall. Since these shaped-charge rounds lack the wire wrapping of the 40-mm HEDP, they burst into few fragments and are often ineffective casualty producers.

(3) Sandbagged emplacements present a different problem (see Figure 2-60). Because sandbags absorb much of the energy from a shaped-charge, the rounds should be aimed at the center of the firing aperture. Even if the round misses the aperture, the bunker wall area near it is usually easiest to penetrate.

(4) Light and medium recoilless weapons obtain their most effective short-range antiarmor shots by firing from upper stories, or from the flanks and rear. When firing at main battle tanks, these weapons should always be employed against these weaker areas in volley, series, or paired firings. They normally require multiple hits to achieve a kill on a tank. Flanks, top, and rear shots hit the most vulnerable parts of armored vehicles. Firing from upper stories protects the firer from tank main gun and coaxial machine gun fire since tanks cannot sharply elevate their cannons. The BMP-2 can elevate its 30-mm cannon to engage targets in upper stories. The BTR-series armored vehicles can also fire into upper stories with their heavy machine gun.

(5) Modern infantry fighting vehicles such as the BMP-2 and the BTR-80, have significantly improved frontal protection against shaped-charge weapons. Many main battle tanks have some form of reactive armor in addition to their thick armor plate. Head-on, ground-level shots against these vehicles have little probability of obtaining a kill. Even without reactive armor, modern main battle tanks are hard to destroy with a light antiarmor weapon.

(6) The easiest technique to use to improve the probability of hitting and killing an armored vehicle, is to increase the firing depression angle. A 45-degree downward firing angle doubles the probability of a first-round hit as compared to a ground-level shot (see Figure 2-61).

(1) When firing recoilless weapons in the open, soldiers should protect themselves from blast and burn injuries caused by the backblast. All personnel should be out of the danger zone. Anyone not able to vacate the caution zone should be behind cover. Soldiers in the caution zone should wear helmets, protective vests, and eye protection. The firer and all soldiers in the area should wear earplugs.

(2) Since the end of World War II, the U.S. Army has conducted extensive testing on the effects of firing recoilless weapons from within enclosures. Beginning as early as 1948, tests have been conducted on every type of recoilless weapon available. In 1975 the U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratory at Aberdeen Proving Grounds in Maryland conducted extensive firing of LAWs, Dragons, 90-mm RCLRs, and TOW from masonry and frame buildings and from sandbag bunkers. These tests showed firing these weapons from enclosures presented no serious hazards, even when the overpressure was enough to produce structural damage to the building. The following are other findings of this test.

(3) Recoilless weapons fired from within enclosures create some obscuration (smoke) inside the room, but almost none from the gunner's position looking out. Inside the room, obscuration can be intense, but the room remains inhabitable. The table in Figure 2-63 shows the effects of smoke and obscuration.

(4) The Dragon causes the most structural damage, but only in frame buildings. There does not seem to be any threat of injury to the gunner, since the damage is usually to the walls away from the gunner. The most damage and debris is from flying plaster chips and pieces of wood trim. Large chunks of plasterboard can be dislodged from ceilings. The backblast from LAW, Dragon, or TOW rarely displaces furniture. Figure 2-64 shows the test results of structural damage and debris.

(5) To fire a LAW from inside a room the following safety precautions must be taken (see Figure 2-65).

(6) To fire a 90-mm RCLR, AT4/8, or SMAW from inside a room, the following safety precautions must be taken (see Figure 2-66.)

(1) M72 LAW. The LAW, although light and easy to use, has a small explosive charge and limited penetration. It can be defeated by a double-layer brick wall, backed by four feet of sandbags, since it cannot produce a loophole in this type construction. The LAW requires about 15 meters to arm. If it hits a target before it arms, it usually does not detonate. (The LAW is being replaced by the AT4 in the U.S. Army inventory of munitions.) The LAW can penetrate the following:

• Two feet of reinforced concrete, leaving a dime-sized hole and creating little spall.

• Six feet of earth, leaving a quarter-sized hole with no spall.

• Eight inches of steel (flanks, rear, and top armor of most armored vehicles), leaving a dime-sized hole.

(2) M136 84-mm Launcher (AT4). The AT4 is heavier than the LAW with a diameter of 84 millimeters, which gives the warhead much greater penetration. The AT4 can penetrate more than 17.5 inches (450 mm) of armor plate. Its warhead produces highly destructive results behind the armor. Tests against typical urban targets are still ongoing, but the AT4 should penetrate at least as well as the 90-mm recoilless rifle if not better. The AT4 has a minimum arming distance of 10 meters, which allows it to be fired successfully against close targets. Gunners should be well covered by protective equipment when firing at close targets.

(3) 90-mm Recoilless rifle. The 90-mm recoilless rifle is being phased out of the U.S. Army inventory of weapons but it is still used in some units. Its light weight and maneuverability combined with great penetrating power make the 90-mm RCLR a useful weapon during combat in built-up areas. The 90-mm RCLR has an antipersonnel round effective against exposed enemy. The flechette projectiles fired by this antipersonnel round cannot penetrate structural walls, but can pierce partitions and wooden-framed buildings. The antipersonnel round has no minimum range, but the HEAT round is not armed until it has traveled 35 to 50 feet. The 90-mm HEAT round can penetrate the following:

• Three and one half feet of packed earth, leaving a 2-inch hole with no spall.

• Two and one half feet of reinforced concrete, creating a small loophole (less than 3 inches wide) with little spall.

• Ten inches of armor plate, leaving a quarter-sized hole.

(4) Shoulder-launched, Multipurpose Assault Weapon (SMAW). The SMAW is being issued to U.S. Marine Corps units. It has been type-classified and in time of war, Army units could find it available. The SMAW is a lightweight man-portable assault weapon easily carried and placed into action by one man. It is used against fortified positions, but it is also effective against light-armored vehicles. The SMAW has a 9-mm spotting rifle and a 3.8-power telescope which ensure accuracy over ranges common to combat in built-up areas. The SMAW has excellent incapacitating effects behind walls and inside bunkers, and can arm within 10 meters. It fires the same dual-mode fuzed round as the AT8 and it has another round designed for even greater effect against armored vehicles. The SMAW has the same penetration ability as the AT8 -- it can destroy most bunkers with a single hit. Multiple shots can create breach holes even in reinforced concrete.

(5) RPG-7. The RPG-7 is a common threat weapon worldwide. It is lightweight and maneuverable and is accurate over ranges common to combat in built-up areas. In a conflict almost anywhere in the world, U.S. forces must protect themselves against RPGs. The RPG warhead is moderately effective against armored vehicles, particularly M113 armored personnel carriers. It is less effective against common urban hard targets. It has a limited effect against reinforced concrete or stone. Typically, the round produces a small hole with little spall. The RPG produces a small hole in earth berms, with little blast effect and no spall. A triple layer of sandbags is usually protection against RPG rounds. Because of its fuze design, the RPG can often be defeated by a chain-link fence erected about 4 meters in front of a position. Even without such a barrier, a high percentage of RPG rounds fired against urban targets are duds due to glancing blows.

(1) Of all the common building materials, heavy stone is the most difficult to penetrate. The LAW, AT4, 90-mm RCLR, and RPG-7 usually will not penetrate a heavy European-style stone wall. Surface cratering is usually the only effect.

(2) Layered brick walls are also difficult to breach with light recoilless weapons. Some brick walls can be penetrated by multiple firings, especially if they are less than three bricks thick. Five LAW rounds fired at the same spot on an eight-inch (double-brick) wall normally produces a loophole. Heavier weapons, such as the AT4 and 90-mm RCLR, may require fewer rounds. The AT8 and SMAW produce a hole in brick walls that is often large enough to be a breach hole.

(3) Wooden structural walls offer little resistance to light recoilless weapons. Even heavy timbered walls are penetrated and splintered. Three LAW rounds fired at the same area of a wood-frame wall usually produce a man-sized hole. The AT8 and SMAW have a devastating effect against a wood-frame wall. A single round produces a breach hole as well as significant spall.

(4) Because of its high velocity, the AT4 may penetrate a soft target, such as a car body or frame building before exploding.

(5) None of the light recoilless weapons are as effective against structural walls as demolitions or heavier weapons such as tank main guns, field artillery, or combat engineer vehicle demolition guns. Of all the light recoilless weapons, the SMAW and AT8 are the most effective.

(1) Obstacles. When fired from street level, rubble or other obstacles could interfere with missile flight. At least 3.5 feet (1 meter) of vertical clearance over such obstacles must be maintained. Figure 2-68 shows the most common obstacles to ATGM flights found in built-up areas. Power lines are a special obstacle presenting a unique threat to ATGM gunners. If the power in the lines has not been interrupted, the ATGM guidance wires could create a short circuit. This would allow extremely high voltage to pass to the gunner in the brief period before the guidance wires melted. This voltage could either damage the sight and guidance system, or injure the gunner. Before any ATGM is fired over a power line, an attempt must be made to determine whether or not the power has been interrupted.

(2) Dead Space. Three aspects of dead space affecting ATGM fires are arming distance, maximum depression, and maximum elevation.

(3) Backblast. As for the light recoilless weapons, backblast for ATGMs is more of a concern during combat in built-up areas than in open country. Any loose rubble in the caution zone could be picked up and thrown by the backblast. The channelling effect of walls and narrow streets is even more pronounced and results in a greater backblast effect. If the ATGM backblast strikes a wall at an angle it can pick up debris or be deflected and cause injury to unprotected personnel (Figure 2-70). Both ATGMs (TOW and Dragon) can be fired from inside some buildings. In addition to the helmet and protective vest, eye protection and earplugs should be worn by all personnel in the room.

(1) Standard TOW Missiles. The basic TOW missile can penetrate 8 feet of packed earth, 4 feet of reinforced concrete or 16 inches of steel plate. The improved TOW (ITOW), the TOW 2, and the TOW 2A all have been modified to improve their penetration. They all penetrate better than the basic TOW. All TOW missiles can defeat triple sandbag walls, double layers of earth-filled 55-gallon drums, and 18-inch log walls.

(2) TOW 2B. The TOW 2B uses a different method of defeating enemy armor. It flies over the target and fires an explosively formed penetrator down onto the top armor which is thinner. Because of this design feature, the TOW 2B missile cannot be used to attack nonmetallic structural targets. When using the TOW 2B missile against enemy armor, gunners must avoid firing directly over other friendly vehicles, disabled vehicles, or large metal objects such as water or oil tanks.

(3) Dragon Missile. The Dragon missile can penetrate 8 feet of packed earth, 4 feet of concrete, or 13 inches of steel plate. It can attain effective short-range fire from upper stories, or from the rear, or flanks of a vehicle. These engagements are targeted against the most vulnerable parts of tanks and can entrap tanks in situations where they are unable to counterfire. Elevated firing positions increase the first-round hit probability. Firing down at an angle of 20 degrees increases the chance of a hit by 67 percent at 200 meters. A 45-degree down angle doubles the first-round-hit probability compared to a ground-level shot.

(1) M202 FLASH. The M202 FLASH can deliver area fire out to 500 meters. In combat in built-up areas, the range to targets is normally much less. Point targets, such as an alleyway or bunker, can usually be hit from 200 meters. Precision fire against a bunker aperture is possible at 50 meters.

(2) M34 WP Hand Grenade. The M34 is used to ignite and destroy flammable objects especially wooden structures. It is also used to create an immediate smoke cloud to conceal movement across a narrow open space such as a street. Its smoke is not toxic but can cause choking in heavy concentrations.

(3) M2AI-7 and M9-7 Portable Flamethrowers. Portable flamethrowers have a much shorter effective range than the M202 (20 to 50 meters) but require no special backblast consideration. The psychological and physical effects of the portable flamethrower are impressive. When used against troops behind a street barricades, the flamethrower can be fired in a traversing burst to cover a wide frontage. A blind-angle burst can be fired to exploit the splattering effect of the thickened fuel without exposing the gunner (see Figure 2-73).

(1) The AN-M8 hydrogen chloride (HC) grenade produces a dense white or grey smoke. It burns intensely and cannot be easily extinguished once it ignites. The smoke can be dangerous in heavy concentrations because it makes breathing difficult and causes choking. The M8 grenade is normally used for screening. It produces a slowly building screen of longer duration, than that of the M34 WP grenade, without the problem of collateral damage caused by scattered burning particles.

(2) The M18-series smoke grenades produce several different colors of smoke which are used for signalling. Yellow smoke is sometimes difficult to see in built-up areas. Newer versions of yellow smoke grenades are more visible than before.

(3) The M7A3 chemical smoke (CS) riot control grenade can be used to drive enemy troops out of fortifications when civilian casualties or collateral damage constraints are considerations. Built-up areas often create variable and shifting wind patterns. When using CS grenades, soldiers must prevent the irritating smoke from affecting friendly troops. The CS grenade burns intensely and can ignite flammable structures. Enemy troops wearing even rudimentary chemical protective masks can withstand intense concentrations of CS gas.

(4) The M67 fragmentation grenades are commonly used during combat in built-up areas. They provide suppression during room-to-room or house-to-house fighting and can be used while clearing rooms of enemy personnel. When used at close ranges the grenade can be "cooked off" for two seconds to deny the enemy time to throw it back. The fragmentation grenade can be rolled, bounced, or ricocheted into areas unreachable by 40-mm grenade launchers. Soldiers should be extra cautious when throwing grenades up stairs. This is not the most desired method of employment.

(5) The MK3A2 offensive hand grenade, commonly referred to as the concussion grenade, produces casualties during close combat while minimizing the danger to friendly personnel. The grenade produces severe concussion effects in enclosed areas. It can be used for light blasting and demolitions and for creating breach holes in interior walls. The concussion produced by the MK3A2 is much greater than that of the M67. It is very effective against enemy soldiers within bunkers, buildings, and underground passages.

(1) The urban area effects of smoke grenades are nominal. Smoke grenades produce dense clouds of colored or white smoke which remain stationary in the surrounding area. They can cause fires if used indiscriminately. If trapped and concentrated within a small spaces, their smoke can suffocate soldiers.

(2) The M26 fragmentation grenade has more varied effects in combat in built-up areas. It produces a large amount of small high-velocity fragments which can penetrate sheetrock partitions and are lethal at short ranges (15 to 20 meters). Fragments lose their velocity quickly and are less effective beyond 25 meters. The fragments from an M26 grenade cannot penetrate a single layer of sandbags, a cinder-block or brick building, but they can perforate wood frame and tin buildings if exploded close to their walls.

(3) Fragmentation barriers inside rooms consisting of common office furniture, mattresses, doors, or books, can be effective against the M26 fragmentation grenade. For this reason a room should never be considered safe because one or two M26 grenades have been detonated inside it. Fragmentation grenades detonated on the floor not only throw fragments laterally, but also send fragments and spall downward to lower floors. Predicting how much spall will occur is difficult since flooring material varies, but wooden floors are usually affected the most.

(4) Some Russian grenades throw fragments much larger than those of the M26. Light barriers and interior walls would probably would be defeated by those grenades, but not the M26. A major problem with the M26 grenade is its tendency to bounce back off hard targets. Fragmentation grenades are often directed at window openings on the ground floor or second floor. At ranges as close as 20 meters a thrower's chances of missing a standard one-meter by one-meter window are high. The M26 fragmentation grenade normally breaks through standard window glass and enters a room. If the grenade strikes at a sharp angle or the glass is thick plate, the grenade could be deflected without penetrating.

(5) Hand grenades are difficult weapons to use. They involve a high risk of fratricide. Conduct precombat training with hand grenades as part of normal preparations. Soldiers must be especially careful when throwing hand grenades up stairs.

(6) The pins of both fragmentation and concussion grenades can be replaced if the thrower decides not use the weapon. This pin replacement must be done carefully.

(7) Mission, enemy, terrain, troops, and time available (METT-T) and the rules of engagement (ROE) will dictate what type of grenade is used to clear each room. Because of the high expenditure of grenades, units should use butt packs or assault packs to carry additional grenades of all types. Additional grenades can also be carried in empty ammunition or canteen pouches.

(1) Mortars can be fired through the roof of a ruined building if the ground-level flooring is solid enough to withstand the recoil. If there is only concrete flooring in the mortar platoon's area, mortars can be fired using sandbags as a buffer under the baseplates and curbs as anchors and braces. Aiming posts can be placed in dirt-filled cans.

(2) The 60-mm, 81-mm, and 107-mm mortars of the U.S. Army have limited affect on structural targets. Even with delay fuzes, they seldom penetrate more than the upper stories of light buildings. However their wide area coverage and multi-option fuzes make them useful against an enemy force advancing through streets, through other open areas, or over rubble. The 120-mm mortar is moderately effective against structural targets. With a delay fuze setting, it can penetrate deep into a building and create great destruction.

(3) Mortar platoons often operate as separate firing sections during combat in built-up areas. The lack of large open areas can preclude establishing a platoon firing position. Figure 2-74 shows how two mortar sections, separated by only one street, can be effective in massing fires and be protected from counter-mortar fire by employing defilade and dispersion.

(4) All three of the standard mortar projectiles are useful during combat in built-up areas. High-explosive fragmentation is the most commonly used round. WP is effective in starting fires in buildings and forcing the enemy out of cellars and light-frame buildings. It is also the most effective mortar round against dug-in enemy tanks. Even near-misses blind and suppress the tank crew, forcing them to button up. Hits are difficult to achieve but are effective.

(5) Because the artificial roughness of urban terrain reduces wind speed and increases atmosphere mixing, mortar smoke tends to persist longer and give greater coverage in built-up areas than in open terrain.

(6) Urban masking impacts on the use of illumination. In built-up areas it is often necessary to plan illumination behind friendly positions which places friendly troops in shadows and enemy troops in the light. Illumination rounds are difficult to adjust and are often of limited use because of the deep-canyon nature of the urban area. Rapidly shifting wind currents in built-up areas also affect mortar illumination making it less effective.

(1) Sixty-mm Mortar. The 60-mm mortar round cannot penetrate most rooftops, even with a delay setting. Small explosive rounds are effective however in suppressing snipers on rooftops and preventing roofs from being used by enemy observers. The 60-mm WP round is not normally a good screening round due to its small area of coverage. In combat in built-up areas however, the tendency of smoke to linger and the small areas to be screened, make it more effective. During the battle for Hue in South Vietnam, 60-mm WP rounds were used to create small short-term smoke screens to conceal movement across open areas such as parks, plazas, and bridges. Fragments from 60-mm HE rounds landing as close as 10 feet, cannot penetrate a single sandbag layer or a single-layer brick wall. The effect of a 60-mm mortar HE round making a direct hit on a bunker or fighting position is equivalent to one or two pounds of TNT. Normally the blast will not collapse a properly constructed bunker but can cause structural damage. The 60-mm mortar will not normally crater a hard-surfaced road.

(2) 81-mm Mortar. The 81-mm mortar has much the same effect against urban targets as the 60-mm mortar. It has a slightly greater lethal area and its smoke rounds (WP and RP [red phosphorus]) are more effective. A direct hit is equivalent to about four pounds of TNT. The 81-mm round cannot significantly crater a hard-surfaced road. With a delay setting the 81-mm round can penetrate the roofs of light buildings.

(3) 107-mm Mortar. The 107-mm mortar can affect moderately hard urban targets. It is more effective than the 81-mm mortar. Even when fired with a delay fuze setting, the round cannot penetrate deep into typical urban targets. The mortar's lethal fragment area is somewhat increased in built-up areas, because its blast picks up significant amounts of debris and throws it outward. The minimum range of the 107-mm mortar is the main constraint in its use during battle in a built-up area. Of all the United States mortars, the 107-mm is the least capable in reaching targets in deep defilade. The 107-mm mortar slightly craters a hard-surfaced road, but not enough to prevent vehicle traffic.

(4) 120-mm Mortar. The 120-mm mortar is large enough to have a major effect on common urban targets. It can penetrate deep into a building, causing extensive damage because of its explosive power. A minimum of 18 inches of packed earth or sand is needed to stop the fragments from a 120-mm HE round impacting 10 feet away. The effect from a direct hit from a 120-mm round is equivalent to almost 10 pounds of TNT and can crush fortifications built with commonly available materials. The 120-mm mortar round can create a large but shallow crater in a road surface which is not deep or steep-sided enough to block vehicular movement. However, craters could be deep enough to damage or destroy storm-drain systems, water and gas pipes, and electrical or phone cables.

(5) Threat Munitions. The paragraphs above discuss the mortar rounds available to U.S. troops. The following two paragraphs address the Russian munitions U.S. troops could encounter in combat in built-up-areas around the world.

(1) Reinforced Concrete. Reinforced concrete walls which are 12 to 20 inches thick, present problems for the 25-mm gun when trying to create breach holes. It is relatively easy to penetrate, fracture, and clear away the concrete, but the reinforcing rods remain in place. These create a "jail window" effect by preventing entry, but allowing grenades or rifle fire to be placed behind the wall. Steel reinforcing rods are normally 3/4 inch thick and 6 to 8 inches apart -- there is no quick and easy way of cutting these rods. They can be cut with demolition charges, cutting torches, or special power saws. Firing with either APDS-T or high-explosive-incendiary with tracer (HEI-T) rounds from the 25-mm gun will not always cut these rods.

(2) Brick Walls. Brick walls are more easily defeated by the 25-mm gun regardless of their thickness and they produce the most spall.

(3) Bunker Walls. The 25-mm gun is devastating when fired against sandbag bunker walls. Obliquity has the least affect on the penetration of bunker walls. Bunkers with earth walls up to 36 inches thick are easily penetrated. At short ranges typical of combat in built-up areas, defeating a bunker should be easy, especially if the 25-mm gun can fire at an aperture.

(1) APDS-T. The armor-piercing, discarding-sabot with tracer round penetrates urban targets by retaining its kinetic energy and blasting a small hole deep into the target. The APDS-T round gives the best effects behind the wall and the armor-piercing core (penetrator) often breaks into two or three fragments which can create multiple enemy casualties. The APDS-T needs as few as four rounds to achieve lethal results behind walls. The table in Figure 2-75 shows the number of APDS-T rounds needed to create different-size holes in common urban walls.

(2) HEI-T. The high-explosive-incendiary with tracer round penetrates urban targets by blasting away chunks of material.

(1) The M1 and MlAl tank can elevate its cannon +20 degrees and depress it -10 degrees. The M60 and M48 series tanks have upper limits of +19 degrees and lower limits of -10 degrees. The lower depression limit creates a 35-foot (10.8-meter) ground-level dead space around a tank. On a 16-meter-wide street (common in Europe) this dead space extends to the buildings on each side (see Figure 2-79).

Similarly, there is an overhead zone in which the tank cannot fire (see Figure 2-80). In the offensive, this dead space offers ideal locations for short-range antiarmor weapons and allows hidden enemy gunners to fire at the tank when the tank cannot fire back. It also exposes the tank's most vulnerable areas: the flanks, rear, and top. Infantrymen move ahead, alongside, and to the rear of tanks to provide close protection. The extreme heat produced immediately to the rear of the M1-series tanks prevents dismounted infantry from following closely, but protection from small-arms fire and fragments is still provided by the tank's bulk and armor. The Ml-series tanks also have a blind spot caused by the 0-degree of depression available over part of the back deck. To engage any target in this area, the tank must pivot to convert the rear target to a flank target.

d. Target Effects. High-explosives antitank rounds are most effective against masonry walls. The APFSDS round can penetrate deeply into a structure, but does not create a large hole or displace much spall behind the target. In contrast to lighter HEAT rounds (ATGMs), tank HEAT rounds are large enough to displace enough spall to inflict casualties inside a building. One HEAT round normally creates a breach hole in all but the thickest masonry construction -- brick-veneer and wood-frame construction are demolished by a single round. Even the 120-mm HEAT round cannot cut all the reinforcing rods, which are usually left in place and often hinder entry through the breach hole (see Figure 2-81). Both HEAT and APFSDS rounds are effective against all field fortifications. Only large earth berms and heavy mass construction buildings can provide protection against tank fire.

(1) Tanks need infantry on the ground to provide security in built-up areas and to designate targets. Against targets protected by structures, tanks are escorted forward to the most covered location providing a clear shot. On-the-spot instructions by the infantry unit leader ensures the tanks' fire is accurate and its exposure is limited. The tank commander may have to halt in a covered position dismount, and reconnoiter his route forward into a firing position.

(2) When the tank's main gun fires, it creates a large fireball and smoke cloud. In the confines of a built-up area, dirt and masonry dust are also picked up and added to this cloud. The target is further obscured by the smoke and dust of the explosion. Depending on local conditions, this obscuration could last as long as two or three minutes. Infantry can use this period to reposition or advance unseen by the enemy. Caution must be exercised however, because the enemy might also seize the opportunity to move.

(3) Tank cannon creates an overpressure and noise hazard to exposed infantrymen. All dismounted troops working near tanks should wear their Kevlar helmet and protective vest, as well as ballistic eye protection. If possible they should also wear earplugs and avoid the tank's frontal 60-degree arc during firing.

(4) Tanks are equipped with powerful thermal sights used to detect enemy personnel and weapons hidden in shadows and behind openings. Dust, fires, and thick smoke significantly degrade these sights.

(5) Tanks have turret-mounted grenade launchers that project screening smoke grenades. The grenades use a bursting charge and burning red phosphorous particles to create this screen. Burning particles can easily start uncontrolled fires and are hazardous to dismounted infantry near the tank. The tank commander and the infantry small-unit leader must coordinate when, and under what conditions, these launchers are used. Grenade launchers are a useful feature to protect the tank, but they can cause significant problems if unwisely employed.

(6) The tank's size and armor can provide dismounted infantry with cover from direct-fire weapons and fragments. With coordination, tanks can provide moving cover for infantrymen as they advance across small open areas. However, enemy fire striking a tank but not penetrating, is a major threat to nearby infantry. Fragmentation generated by antitank rounds and ricochets off tank armor have historically been a prime cause of infantry casualties while working with tanks in built-up areas.

(7) Some tanks are equipped with dozer blades which can be used to remove rubble barriers under fire, breach obstacles, or seal exits.

(1) Weapons of at least 155-mm are necessary against thick reinforced concrete, stone, or brick walls. Even with heavy artillery, large expenditures of ammunition are required to knock down buildings of any size. Tall buildings also create areas of indirect-fire dead space which are areas unengageable by indirect fire due to a combination of building height and angle of fall of the projectile (see Figure 2-82). Usually the dead space for low-angle indirect fire is about five times the height of the highest building over which the rounds must pass.

(2) Even when it is theoretically possible to hit a target in a street over a tall building, another problem arises because of range probable error (PE). Only 50 percent of the rounds fired on the same data can be expected to fall within one range PE of the target. This means that when firing indirect fire into built-up areas with tall buildings, it is necessary to double the normal ammunition expenditure to overcome the problem of a reduced target area and range PE. Also up to 25 percent of all HE rounds are duds due to glancing off hard surfaces.

(3) Naval gunfire, because of its flat trajectory, is even more affected by terrain masking. It is very difficult to adjust onto the target because the gun-target line is constantly changing.

(1) 155-mm Howitzers. The 155-mm self-propelled howitzer offers its crew mobility and limited protection in built-up areas. It is effective due to its rate of fire and penetration. High-explosive rounds can penetrate up to 38 inches of brick and unreinforced concrete. Projectiles can penetrate up to 28 inches of reinforced concrete with considerable damage beyond the wall. HE rounds fuzed with concrete-piercing fuzes provide an excellent means of penetrating strong reinforced concrete structures. One round can penetrate up to 46 inches. Five rounds are needed to reliably create a 1.5-meter breach in a one-meter thick wall. About 10 rounds are needed to create a similar breach in a wall 1.5 meters thick. Superquick fuzing causes the rubble to be blown into the building, whereas delay fuzing tends to blow the rubble outward into the street.

(2) 203-mm Howitzers. The 203-mm howitzer is the most powerful direct-fire weapon available to the Army. It has a slow rate of fire, but its projectile has excellent penetration abilities. One round normally creates a breach hole in walls up to 56 inches thick. The howitzer crew is exposed to enemy fire. The vehicle only carries three rounds on board which limits its use.

(3) Naval Cannon. The most common naval cannon used to support ground troops is the 5-inch/54 caliber gun. In either single or double mounts, this weapon has a high rate of fire and is roughly equivalent to the 155-mm howitzer in target effect. The heaviest guns used to engage land targets are the 16-inch guns of the recently renovated Iowa-class battleships. When used singly or in salvo, these massive guns can penetrate any structure common to a built-up area. Their blast effect is destructive to buildings up to a block away from the point of impact. Battleship gunfire rarely, if ever, is used for close support of ground troops. Its long range and destructive power can be controlled and adjusted ahead of advancing forces by aerial observers, to clear or destroy enemy strongpoints and supporting artillery.

(1) The HELLFIRE missile has a larger warhead and greater range than the TOW, but it too is a shaped-charge warhead and is not specifically designed for use against masonry targets. Laser target designation for the HELLFIRE may not be possible due to laser reflections off glass and shiny metal surfaces. The use of attack helicopters to deliver ATGMs against targets in the upper stories of high buildings is sometimes desirable.

(2) The 2.75-inch folding-fin aerial rocket and the 20-mm cannon common to some attack helicopters are good area weapons to use against enemy forces in the open or under light cover. They are usually ineffective against a large masonry target. The 20-mm cannon produces many ricochets, especially if AP ammunition is fired into built-up areas.

(3) The 30-mm cannon carried by the Apache helicopter is an accurate weapon. It penetrates masonry better than the 20-mm cannon.

(1) Because enemy and friendly forces can be separated by only one building, accurate delivery of ordnance is required. Marking panels, lights, electronic beacons, smoke, or some other positive identification of friendly forces is needed.

(2) General-purpose bombs from 500 to 2,000 pounds are moderately effective in creating casualties among enemy troops located in large buildings. High-dive-angle bomb runs increase accuracy and penetration but also increase the aircraft's exposure to antiaircraft weapons. Low-dive-angle bomb runs using high drag (retarded) bombs can be used to get bombs into upper stories. Penetration is not good with high-drag bombs. Sometimes aerial bombs pass completely through light-clad buildings and explode on the outside.

(3) Aerial rockets and cannons are only moderately effective against enemy soldiers in built-up areas since rockets lack the accuracy to concentrate their effects. The 20-mm cannon rounds penetrate only slightly better than the .50-caliber round, 20-mm AP rounds can ricochet badly, and tracers can start fires.

(4) The 30-mm cannon fired from the A-10 aircraft is an accurate weapon. It is moderately effective against targets in built-up areas penetrating masonry better than the 20-mm cannon.

(5) The AC-130 aircraft has weapons which are most effective during combat in built-up areas. This aircraft can deliver accurate fire from a 40-mm Vulcan cannon, 40-mm rapid-fire cannon, and 105-mm howitzer. The 105-mm howitzer round is effective against the roof and upper floors of buildings. The AC-130 is accurate enough to concentrate its 40-mm cannon and 105-mm howitzer fire onto a single spot to create a rooftop breach which allows fire to be directed deep into the building.

(6) Laser and optically guided munitions can be effective against high-value targets. The USAF has developed special heavy laser-guided bombs to penetrate hardened weapons emplacements. These advanced weapons were used with success during Operation Desert Storm. Problems associated with dense smoke and dust clouds hanging over the built-up area and laser scatter can restrict their use. If the launching aircraft can achieve a successful laser designation and lock-on, these weapons have devastating effects, penetrating deep into reinforced concrete before exploding with great force. If launched without a lock-on or if the laser spot is lost, these weapons are unpredictable and can travel long distances before they impact.

(1) TNT comes in quarter- and one-pound blocks. About five pounds of TNT are needed to breach a nonreinforced concrete wall 12 inches thick if the explosives are laid next to the wall and are not tamped. If the explosives are tamped, about two pounds are sufficient.

(2) C4 comes in many different sized blocks. About 10 pounds of C4 placed between waist and chest high will blow a hole in the average masonry wall large enough for a man to walk through.

(1) Subterranean passages provide the attacker with covered and concealed routes into and through built-up areas. This enables the enemy to launch his attack along roads leading into the city while infiltrating a smaller force in the defender's rear. The objective of this attack is to quickly insert a unit into the defender's rear, thereby disrupting his defense and obstructing his avenues of withdrawal for his forward defense.

(2) Depending upon the strength and depth of the defense, the attack along the subterranean avenue of approach could easily become the main attack. Even if the subterranean effort is not immediately successful, it forces the defender to fight on two levels and to extend his resources to more than just street-level fighting.

(3) The existence of subterranean passages forces the defender to defend the built-up area above and below ground passages are more of a disadvantage to the defender than the attacker. However, subterranean passages also offer some advantages. When thoroughly reconnoitered and controlled by the defender, subterranean passages provide excellent covered and concealed routes to move reinforcements or to launch counterattacks. They also provide ready-made lines of communication for the movement of supplies and evacuation of casualties and provide places to cache supplies for forward companies. Subterranean passages also offer the defender a ready-made conduit for communications wire which protects it from tracked vehicles and indirect fires.

(1) Tunnels afford the attacker little cover and concealment except for the darkness and any man-made barriers. The passageways provide tight fields of fire and amplify the effect of grenades. Obstacles at intersections in the tunnels set up excellent ambush sites and turn the subterranean passages into a deadly maze. These obstacles can be quickly created using chunks of rubble, furniture, and parts of abandoned vehicles interspersed with M18A1 Claymore mines.

(2) A thorough reconnaissance of the subterranean or sewer system must be made first. To be effective, obstacles must be located at critical intersections in the passage network so they trap attackers in a kill zone but allow defenders freedom of movement (Figure 2-84).

(1) Your patrol leader should organize his patrol with two riflemen -- one tasked with security to the front (the point man) and one tasked with security to the rear (Figure 2-85). The patrol leader moves directly behind the point man and navigates and records data collected by the patrol. The grenadier follows the patrol leader and the demolitions man should follow the grenadier. Leave two riflemen as a security post at the point of entry. They are responsible for detecting any enemy who come upon the patrol unit's rear and for serving as the communications link between the patrol leader and his higher headquarters.

(2) The patrol leader carries a map, compass, street plan, and notebook in which he has written the information he must gather for the platoon leader. The grenadier carries the tools needed to open manhole covers. If the patrol is to move more than 200 to 300 meters, or if the platoon leader directs, the grenadier should also carry a sound-powered telephone (TA-1) and wire dispenser (XM-306A) for communications. (Radios are unreliable in this environment). Equip the point man with night vision goggles to maintain surveillance within the sewer.

(3) All soldiers entering the sewer should carry a sketch of the sewer system to include magnetic north azimuths, distances, and manholes. They should also carry protective masks, flashlights, gloves, and chalk for marking features along the route. The patrol should also be equipped with a 120-foot safety rope to which each man is tied. To improve footing in slippery sewers and storm drains, the patrol could wrap chicken wire or screen wire around their boots.

(4) A constant concern to troops conducting a subterranean patrol is chemical defense. Enemy chemical agents used in tunnels are encountered in dense concentrations with no chance of dispersement. The M8 automatic chemical agent alarm system carried by the point man provides instant warning of the presence of chemical agents. M8 detector paper can also be used to detect chemical agents. At the first indication harmful gases are present, the patrol should mask up.

(5) In addition to enemy chemical agents, noxious gases from decomposing sewage can also pose a threat. These gases are not detected by the M8 chemical agent alarm system, nor are they completely filtered by the protective mask. Physical signs indicating their presence in harmful quantities are nausea and dizziness. The patrol leader should be constantly alert to these signs and know the shortest route to the surface for fresh air.

(6) Once the patrol is organized and equipped it moves to the entrance of the tunnel which is usually a manhole. With the manhole cover removed, the patrol waits 15 minutes before entry to allow any gases present in the tunnel to dissipate. Then the point man descends into the tunnel to determine whether the air is safe to breathe and if movement is restricted. The point man should remain in the tunnel for 10 minutes before the rest of the patrol follows. If he becomes ill or is exposed to danger, he can be pulled out by the safety rope.

(7) When the patrol is moving through the tunnel, the point man moves about 10 meters in front of the patrol leader. Other patrol members maintain 5-meter intervals. If the water in the tunnel is flowing faster than 2.5 meters per second or if the sewer contains slippery obstacles, those intervals should be increased to prevent all patrol members from falling if one man slips. All patrol members should stay tied into the safety rope so they can easily be retrieved from danger. The rear security man marks the route with chalk so other troops can find the patrol.

(8) The patrol leader should note the azimuth and pace count of each turn he takes in the tunnel. When he encounters a manhole to the surface, the point man opens it and determines the location, which the patrol leader then records. The use of recognition signals (Figure 2-86) prevents friendly troops from accidentally shooting the point man as he appears at a manhole.

(9) Once the patrol has returned and submitted its report, you must decide how to use the tunnel. In the offense, the tunnel could provide a covered route to move behind the enemy's defenses. In the defense, the tunnel could provide a covered passage between positions. In either case, the patrol members act as guides along the route.

(10) If the tunnel is to be blocked, the platoon should emplace concertina wire, early warning devices, and antipersonnel mines. A two-man position is established at the entrance of the sewer (Figure 2-87). It provides security against the enemy trying to approach the platoon's defense and is abandoned should the water rise.

It should be equipped with command-detonated illumination flares. While listening for the enemy, soldiers manning this position should not wear earplugs (they should put them in their ears just before firing). The confined space amplifies sounds of weapons firing to a dangerous level. The overpressure from grenades, mines, and booby traps exploding in a sewer or tunnel can have adverse effects on friendly troops such as ruptured eardrums and wounds from flying debris. Also, gases found in sewers can be ignited by the blast effects of such munitions. For this reason, only small-arms weapons should be employed in tunnels and sewers. Friendly personnel should be out of the tunnel or out of range of the effects when mines or demolitions are detonated. Soldiers put on masks at the first sign of a chemical threat.

(1) You must enforce measures to dispel the feelings of fear and isolation experienced by soldiers in tunnels. These measures include leadership training, physical and mental fitness, sleep discipline, and stress management.

(2) Maintain communication with soldiers manning positions in the tunnels either by personal visits or by field telephone. Communications inform you of the tactical situation as well as the mental state of your soldiers. Soldiers manning positions below ground should be given as much information as possible on the organization of the tunnels and the importance of the mission. Brief them on contingency plans and alternate positions, should their primary positions become untenable.

(3) Physical and mental fitness can be maintained by periodically rotating soldiers out of tunnels so they can stand and walk in fresh air and sunlight. Stress management is also a factor of operations in tunnels. Historically, combat in built-up areas has been one of the most stressful forms of combat. Continuous darkness and restricted maneuver space cause more stress to soldiers than street fighting.

(1) Protection. Select buildings providing protection from direct and indirect fires. Reinforced concrete buildings with three or more floors provide suitable protection while buildings constructed of wood, paneling, or other light material must be reinforced to gain sufficient protection. One to two-story buildings without a strongly constructed cellar are vulnerable to indirect fires and require construction of overhead protection for each firing position.

(2) Dispersion. A position should not be established in a single building when it is possible to occupy two or more buildings permitting mutually supporting fires. A position in one building without mutual support is vulnerable to bypass, isolation, and subsequent destruction from any direction.

(3) Concealment. Don't select buildings that are obvious defensive positions (easily targeted by the enemy). Requirements for security and fields of fire could require the occupation of exposed buildings. Therefore, reinforcements provide suitable protection within the building.

(4) Fields of Fire. To prevent isolation, positions should be mutually supporting and have fields of fire in all directions. Clearing fields of fire could require the destruction of adjacent buildings using explosives, engineer equipment, and field expedients.

(5) Covered Routes. Defensive positions should have at least one covered route for resupply, medical evacuation, reinforcement, or withdrawal from the building. The route can be established by one of the following:

• Through walls to adjacent buildings.
• Through underground systems.
• Through communications trenches.
• Behind protective buildings.

(6) Observation. The building should permit observation of enemy avenues of approach and adjacent defensive sectors.

(7) Fire Hazard. Avoid selecting positions in buildings which are fire hazards. If flammable structures must be occupied, the danger of fire can be reduced by wetting down the immediate environment, laying an inch of sand on the floors, and providing fire extinguishers and fire-fighting equipment. Also routes of escape must be prepared in case of fire.

(8) Time. Time available to prepare the defense can be the most critical factor. If enough time is not available, do not use buildings requiring extensive preparation. Conversely, buildings located in less desirable areas which require little improvement, could probably become the centers of defense.

(1) Selecting Positions (Figures 2-88 and 2-89). Assign each weapon a primary sector of fire to cover enemy approaches. Alternate positions overwatching the primary sector are also selected. These positions are usually located in an adjacent room on the same floor. Assign each weapon a supplementary position to engage attacks from other directions, and an FPL.

(2) Building Positions. There are many ways to establish a fighting position in a building.

(3) Other Construction Tasks. Other construction tasks in basements, on ground floors, and on upper floors will need to be performed.

(1) Armored Vehicle Positions. Select and develop armored vehicle positions to obtain the best cover, concealment, observation, and fields of fire, while retaining the vehicle's ability to move.

(1) When ATGMs are fired from a vehicle or from street-level or bottom-floor fighting positions, rubble can interfere with missile flight. When firing down streets, missiles must have at least 30 inches of clearance over rubble. Other obstacles to missile flight include trees and brush, vehicles, television antennas, buildings, power lines and wires, walls and fences.

(2) A LAW is best suited for built-up areas because its 10-meter minimum arming distance allows employment at close range. LAWs and other light and medium antitank weapons are not effective against the front of modern battle tanks. Because tanks have the least armor protection on the top and rear deck, and the tank presents a larger target when engaged from above, LAWs should fire down onto tanks.

(1) General areas (a building or group of buildings) are designated as sniper positions (Figure 2-100), but the sniper selects the best position for engagement. Masonry buildings offering the best protection, long-range fields of fire and all-round observation are preferred. The sniper also selects several secondary and supplementary positions to cover his areas of responsibility.

(2) Engagement priorities for snipers are determined by the relative importance of the targets to the effective operations of the enemy. Sniper targets usually include tank commanders, direct-fire support weapons' crewmen, crew-served weapons' crewmen, officers, forward observers, and radiotelephone operators.

(3) Built-up areas often limit snipers to firing down or across streets but open areas permit engagements at long ranges. Snipers can be employed to cover rooftops, obstacles, dead space, and gaps in the final protective fires (FPFs).

(1) The size of the support force is determined by the type and size of the objective building(s), whether the adjacent terrain provides open or covered approaches, and the organization and strength of enemy defenses.

(2) The support force could consist of only one infantry fire team with M60 machine guns, M249 SAWs, M203 grenade launchers, and M202 multishot flame weapons. In the case of Bradley-equipped units, the BFV may provide support with the 25-mm gun as the rifle team assaults. In situations involving a larger assault force, a platoon or company reinforced with tanks, engineers, and self-propelled artillery may be required to support movement and assault by an adjacent platoon or company.

(3) After seizing objective buildings, the assault force reorganizes and may be required to provide supporting fires for a subsequent assault. Assign each weapon a target or area to cover. Individual small-arms weapons place fires on likely enemy weapon positions -- loopholes, windows, roof areas. Snipers are best employed in placing accurate fire through loopholes or engaging long-range targets. Have the M202s and M203s direct their fires through windows or loopholes.

(4) Use LAWs to breach walls, doors, barricades, and window barriers on the ground level of structures. Tank main guns and BFV 25-mm guns engage first-floor targets and breach walls for attacking infantry. Tank machine guns engage suspected positions on upper floors and in adjacent structures. In addition to destroying or weakening structures, tank main gun projectiles cause casualties by explosive effects and by hurling debris throughout the interior of structures.

(5) Artillery and mortars use time fuzes to initially clear exposed personnel, weapons, observation posts, and radio sites from rooftops. They then use delayed-fuze action to cause casualties among the defenders inside the structure by high-explosive, shrapnel, and falling debris. Artillery can also be used in the direct-fire mode much like the tank and CEV.

(1) In lightly defended areas, the requirement for speed may dictate moving through the streets and alleys without clearing all buildings. Thus the maneuver element should employ infantry to lead the column, closely followed and supported by BFVs or tanks.

(2) When dismounted, have rifle elements move along each side of the street with leading squads keeping almost abreast of the lead tanks. When not accompanied by tanks or BFVs, rifle elements can move single file along one side of the street under cover of fires from supporting weapons. They should be dispersed and move along quickly. Each man is detailed to observe and cover a certain area such as second-floor windows on the opposite side of the street.

(1) An assault in a built-up area involves the elementary skills of close combat. Individual element leaders must have the following capabilities:

• Be trained in the required techniques to defeat the enemy in a face-to-face encounter.
• Keep themselves in excellent physical condition.
• Have confidence in their abilities.

(2) The composition of the assault force varies depending on the situation; however, the considerations for equipping the force remain the same. The assault force for a squad consists of three-man teams carrying only a fighting load of equipment and as much ammunition as possible, especially grenades (Figure 2-101). A three-man support team provides suppressive fire for the assault force. The assault teams use maneuver techniques to clear a building room by room.

(3) The M249 Machine Gun is normally employed with the support element but can also be used with the assault force to gain the advantages of its more powerful round. The Dragon might not be carried by the assault force due to its weight versus its expected effectiveness against the building being assaulted. The squad leader moves with the element from which he can best control the squad. If the squad is understrength or suffers casualties, priority is given to keeping the assault force up to strength at the expense of the support force (see the tables in Figures 2-102 and 2-103).

(4) The criteria for the size of any party are the availability of equipment and personnel, and the tactical situation. Entry at the top and fighting downward is the preferred method of clearing a building (Figure 2-104). Clearing a building is easier from an upper story since gravity and building construction become assets to the assault force when throwing hand grenades and moving from floor to floor. This method is only feasible however, when access to an upper floor or rooftop can be gained from the windows or roofs of adjoining, secured buildings; or, when enemy air defense weapons can be suppressed and troops transported to the rooftops by helicopter.

Helicopters should land only on buildings having special heliports on the roofs or parking garages. Soldiers can rappel onto the roof or dismount as the helicopter hovers a few feet above the roof. Troops then breach the roof or common walls with explosives and use ropes to enter the lower floors. Stairs are guarded by friendly security elements when not used.

(5) Although the top-to-bottom method is preferred for clearing a building, assaulting the bottom floor and clearing upward is a common method in all areas except where buildings form continuous fronts. In this situation, the assault force attempts to close on the flank(s) or rear of the building. The assault team clears each room on the ground floor and then moving up, begins a systematic clearance of the remaining floors.

(6) Preferably, entry is gained through walls breached by explosives or gunfire. Assault teams avoid windows and doors since they are usually covered by fire or are boobytrapped. If tanks are attached to the company, they can breach the wall by using their main guns to fire at one entry point (Figure 2-105).

(7) Just before the rush of the assault forces, suppressive fires on the objective should be increased by the support force and continued until masked by the advancing assault force. Once masked, fires are shifted to upper windows and continued until the assault force has entered the building. At that time, shift the fires to adjacent buildings to prevent enemy withdrawal or reinforcement.

(8) Have your assault parties close quickly on the building. Before entry through the breached wall, a hand grenade is cooked off (pin pulled, safety lever released, and held for two seconds before being thrown) and vigorously thrown inside. Immediately after the explosion, assault parties enter and spray the interior, using three-round bursts and concentrating on areas of the room that are possible enemy positions.

(9) Once inside the building, the priority tasks are to cover the staircase leading to upper floors and the basement and to seize rooms overlooking approaches to the building. These actions are required to isolate enemy forces within the building and to prevent reinforcement from the outside. The assault parties clear each ground floor room and then the basement.

(10) If the assault force is preparing to clear a building from the top floor down, they should gain entrance through a common wall or the roof of an adjoining building. Accompanied by the company's attached engineer squad, the force uses a demolition charge to breach the wall and to gain entrance to the top floor. Access to lower floors and rooms may be gained by breaching holes in the floor and having soldiers jump or slide down ropes to the lower floors. Stairs can be used if they are first cleared.

(11) When using the top-to-bottom method of clearing, security requirements remain the same as for other methods (Figure 2-106). After the floor is breached to gain access to a lower floor, a grenade is allowed to cook-off and is dropped to the lower room. A soldier then sprays the lower room with gunfire using three-round bursts and drops through the mousehole.

(12) Ensure your troops avoid clearing rooms the same way each time by having them vary techniques so the enemy cannot prepare for the assault (Figure 2-107). As rooms are cleared, doors should be left open and a predetermined mark (cloth, tape, spray paint) placed on the doorjamb or over the door.

(13) If there is a basement, it should be cleared as soon as possible, preferably at the same time as the ground floor. The procedures for clearing a basement are the same as for any room or floor, but important differences do exist. Basements often contain entrances to tunnels such as sewers and communications cable tunnels. These should be cleared and secured to prevent the enemy from infiltrating back into cleared areas.

(14) The most common types of buildings encountered in clearing operations are brick buildings, brick houses, box-wall buildings, heavy-clad framed buildings, framed buildings, and light-clad framed buildings (Figure 2-108). The best way to enter a brick building is to blow a breaching hole in the side with a tank's main gun, firing HEAT ammunition. If tanks are not available, a door or window in the rear of the building usually provides better cover and concealment for entry than one in the front. If there is enough cover and concealment, the assault force can enter the rear of the building at an upper level using a fire escape or grappling hook.

(15) Brick Houses. Brick houses have similar floor plans on each floor (Figure 2-110) therefore ground floors are cleared the same way as upper floors.

(16) Box-Wall Buildings. Box-wall buildings often have reinforced concrete walls (Figure 2-111), which are difficult to breach due to the reinforcing bars. Therefore, the best way to enter is to blow down the door or to blow in one of the side windows. The floor plans of these buildings are predictable; clearing rooms is usually done from one main hallway. Interior walls are also constructed of reinforced concrete and are difficult to breach. The stairways at the ends of the building must be secured during clearing.

(17) Heavy-Clad Framed Buildings. Heavy-clad framed buildings are relatively easy to breach, because a tank can breach a hole in the cladding (Figure 2-112). Their floor plans are oriented around a stairway or elevator, which must be secured during clearing. The interior walls of these buildings can be breached, although they may require use of demolitions.

(18) Light-Clad Framed Buildings. On light-clad framed buildings (Figure 2-113) the clearing tasks are usually the same: secure the central stairway and clear in a circular pattern. Walls are easier to breach since they are usually thin enough to be breached with an axe.