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Lesson 2
RETROGRADE OPERATIONS
OVERVIEW
Lesson Description:
In this lesson, you will learn to identify the three types of retrograde operations as well as how to identify the fundamentals and considerations for planning a platoon defense.
Terminal Learning Objective:
Action: |
Identify the three types of retrograde operations; the planning, fundamentals, and considerations for the platoon defense; and the common defensive tasks employed by light and mechanized infantry platoons. | ||||||
Condition: |
You will be given information contained in this lesson dealing with the planning, fundamentals, and considerations of retrograde operations. | ||||||
Standard: |
You will identify the three types of retrograde operations; the planning, fundamentals and considerations for the platoon defense; and the common defensive tasks employed by the light and mechanized infantry platoons. | ||||||
References: |
The material contained in this lesson was derived from the following publications:
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INTRODUCTION
Retrograde operations involve delays, withdrawals, and retirements. Planning for retrograde operations depends on the type of infantry units tasked for the operation. This lesson discusses the planning and preparations used for the mechanized and light infantry platoons involved in various retrograde operations.
Part A
FUNDAMENTALS, AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR PLANNING THE PLATOON DEFENSE AND IDENTIFICATION OF THE THREE TYPES OF RETROGRADE OPERATIONS
1. Fundamentals. The immediate purpose of every defense is to cause the enemy attack to fail. The ultimate purpose is to create conditions favorable to assuming the offensive as quickly as possible.
2. Considerations. A platoon leader's defense plan includes the following considerations:
a. The deployment of squads.
b. The deployment of machine guns and antitank weapons.
c. The use of indirect fire.
d. The use of mines and obstacles.
e. Security measures.
f. The selection and operation of a command post-observation post (CP-OP).
3. Retrograde Operations.
a. A retrograde operation is an organized movement away from the enemy. It is either forced or voluntary. In either case, approval is gained from the higher commander. The three types of retrograde operations are--
(1) Delays.
(2) Withdrawals.
(3) Retirements.
b. These operations are designed to harass, exhaust, delay, and damage the enemy. Such operations--
(1) Gain time.
(2) Preserve forces.
(3) Avoid combat under unfavorable conditions.
(4) Draw the enemy into an unfavorable position.
(5) Reposition forces.
(6) Shorten lines of communications.
(7) Permit the withdrawal of a force for use elsewhere.
c. All retrograde operations are difficult. Delays and withdrawals are also inherently risky. They must be well organized and well executed to succeed.
4. Conduct of the Delay.
a. Purpose. Delays are conducted when forces are insufficient to attack or to defend. They are also conducted when the defensive plan calls for drawing the attacker into an area for counterattack. Delays gain time for friendly forces to--
(1) Reestablish the defense.
(2) Cover a defending or withdrawing unit.
(3) Protect a friendly unit's flank.
(4) Participate in an economy-of-force effort.
b. Intent. In the delay, a unit trades space for time. The intent of a delay is to--
(1) Slow the enemy.
(2) Cause enemy casualties.
(3) If possible, stop him without becoming decisively engaged.
c. Who Conducts Delays. This conduct is performed by defending, disengaging, moving, and defending again. Platoons do not conduct delays independently, but they fight as part of their company in a delaying operation. The following information involves the conduct a delay by the platoon.
(1) Deployment the Forces. Usually, commanders deploy most of their forces forward in the delay. Combat support units and combat service support (CSS) units are widely dispersed and must often be attached to the maneuver units they support because of the width of most delay sectors.
(a) Artillery Fires. Artillery fires should be provided to all committed battalions or squadrons and, generally, control of fires must be decentralized.
(b) Reserves. When possible, commanders retain reserves and employ them to assist in disengaging committed units and to slow the enemy by striking his exposed forces.
(c) Intelligence. Intelligence officers actively pursue collection operations to provide information on the enemy's movements in depth, assist in maintaining contact, and observe gaps in friendly dispositions.
(2) Brigades, Regiments, Battalions, and Squadrons.
(a) Brigades, regiments, battalions, and squadrons are more likely to conduct delays and can perform them in several ways. If the delay is a short one, they may fight from a single set of positions, or they may delay in sectors or from battle positions.
(b) Usually, brigade and battalion commanders organize their delays in parallel sectors of considerable depth using a combination of techniques. Attack, defense, and delay from alternate or successive positions can all be combined in such operations.
Example |
The commander may elect to delay from successive positions in less threatened areas, and to establish a defensive position in depth to slow the enemy in a particularly critical area. During his delay, the commander may shift from one technique to another as the operation develops. |
d. Taking the Initiative.
(1) Commanders conducting a delay should take the initiative whenever possible. Striking back at the enemy--
(a) Throws him off stride.
(b) Disorganizes his forces.
(c) Prolongs the delay.
(2) Contesting the initiative also helps the delaying force avoid a pattern of passivity that favors the attacker. Various means of striking the attacker include--
(a) Ambushes.
(b) Counterattacks.
(c) Spoiling attacks.
(d) Close air support (CAS).
(e) Battlefield air interdiction (BAI).
e. Decisive Engagement. Usually, delaying commanders avoid decisive engagement. To block all avenues of approach through their sector, they plan and prepare positions. Obstacles and indirect fires are of great importance in organizing delay positions, because they offset the usually pronounced numerical advantage of the attacking force.
f. Obstacles.
(1) Commanders should integrate natural obstacles into their delay plans. They should also enhance such obstacles with--
(a) Scatterable mines.
(b) Chemical obstacles.
(c) Manually installed obstacles and minefields.
(2) Most engineer effort in a delay centers on countermobility and continues throughout the operation. As the enemy's attack develops, the delaying commander should shift his engineer effort to the areas of greatest threat.
(3) By constructing protected positions, engineer units can also improve the mobility of the delaying force and strengthen some of its most critical forces. Commanders establish priorities for their supporting engineers based on their concept for each specific operation.
g. Indirect and Air Delivered Fires.
(1) Because of the width of most delay sectors, indirect and air-delivered fires are the commander's fastest means of massing combat power during a delay. All committed maneuver forces must have access to fast, effective fire support to assist them in slowing the enemy's movement and in disengaging. When fighting a powerful, mobile enemy, each committed maneuver battalion should be directly supported by an artillery battalion. The force commander for the delay should also retain some ability to mass fires across battalion or brigade boundaries. As in other defensive operations, indirect fires should--:
(a) Protect defensive positions.
(b) Cover obstacles.
(c) Provide smoke and illumination for maneuver forces.
(2) Delaying commanders should also plan to use scatterable mines, and chemical and nuclear weapons to support their maneuver plans when authorized.
h. Aviation Units.
(1) Aviation units are valuable because of their great speed and mobility. As part of the delay, air cavalry units can--
(a) Screen.
(b) Delay.
(c) Reconnoiter.
(2) Initially, attack helicopter units are held in reserve. They assist in the delaying actions of ground maneuver units or help ground units to disengage by attacking enemy vehicles and attack helicopters. They can also attack independently to damage and delay the enemy. Commanders can employ combat support aviation units to--
(a) Position infantry units.
(b) Move engineers to critical points.
(c) Move supplies during the delay.
i. Conclusion of the Delay.
(1) The delay is concluded when enemy forces have halted their attack. The delaying force has completed its mission and has passed through another force.
(2) If the enemy force has halted because of attrition or lack of sustainment, the commander of the delaying force can either maintain contact or withdraw for another mission. In the latter case, the delaying commander assists in the passage of lines and provides information about the enemy and the terrain to the relieving force.
(3) More commonly, a force ends its delay by withdrawing through a friendly defending force. When it does so, the force conducts a rearward passage of lines and hands over the battle to the defending unit. Smooth transfer of control requires the commanders involved to--
(a) Coordinate passage points.
(b) Establish recognition signals.
(c) Coordinate supporting fires.
(d) Agree on routes through the defended position.
(4) When possible, to conceal the transition and the location and organization of the defense, handoff should occur just forward of the new defense.
(5) In many instances, it is preferable to pass delaying units to the rear in sectors not under direct attack. Commanders may do so by maneuvering delay forces away from the enemy's front just before reaching the main defense.
j. Method of Delay in Sector. Normally, the battalion commander assigns the company the mission to delay in sector when there is no dominating terrain on the enemy avenues of approach, where there are multiple enemy avenues of approach, or when the battalion sector is extremely wide.
(1) Sector.
(a) The battalion commander assigns the company a sector in which to delay. The commander also assigns one or more phase lines, which the company must prevent the enemy from crossing until a certain time.
(b) The company commander selects initial and subsequent delay positions for his platoons. Figure 2-1 illustrates the delay in sector. The company defends and withdraws by platoons, bounding them to the rear.
Figure 2-1. Delay in Sector.
(2) Delay Position Characteristics. Delay positions must have the same characteristics as good overwatch positions. They should have long-range fields of fire to the front and covered withdrawal routes to the rear. Platoons deploy near the crests of these positions, not on the forward slopes.
k. Delay Situations. Normally, when one of the following two situations occur, the battalion commander assigns the company the mission to delay from delay positions. The primary threat is armor or motorized units. The battalion is delaying in an armor-restrictive area where the enemy be canalized into selected avenues of approach or the battalion sector is narrow. The terrain is available that dominates armor avenues of approach or the battalion sector is narrow.
(1) Series of Delay Positions. The battalion commander assigns the company a series of delay positions from which to delay. See Figure 2-2 for an example of the delay from (battle) positions. As directed by the battalion commander, the company moves from one delay position to another. If the delay position coincides with the battalion plan, the company commander picks platoon delay positions and fights a delay action between assigned company delay positions. Usually the initial delay position is where most of the position preparation ocures and where the commander wants to hold out the longest.
Figure 2-2. Delay from (Battle) Positions.
(2) Long Distance Delay. Both delay methods may be used if a delay is conducted over a long distance. No matter which one is used, the company commander selects the platoon positions and the routes to them. If there is defendable terrain forward of a delay line (set by the battalion commander), the company commander may defend there for the required time stated for that phase line.
l. Supplemation of the Company's Fire. The company commander must make maximum use of his engineers. The company's fire is supplemented by supporting fire, smoke, minefields, and obstacles in both type delays
m. Quartering Party.
(1) The company commander sends a quartering party to reconnoiter routes and positions in both a delay in sector and a delay from (battle) positions. The party may mark the routes and delay positions, and select positions for--
(a) Machine guns.
(b) Dragons.
(c) Tube-launched, optically-tracked, wire-guided missiles (TOWs).
(d) Mortars.
(2) The quartering party may also--
(a) Guide the arriving units into their positions.
(b) Stockpile supplies, water, and ammunition at each position.
(c) Coordinate the party with any units to the rear of the company when a passage of lines is conducted.
n. Control of Conduct of Delay. When delaying from delay (battle) positions the battalion commander controls the conduct of the delay. When delaying in sector, the company commander controls the conduct of delay. However, by assigning delay lines and times for these lines, the battalion commander can impose certain restraints on the company's rearward movement.
o. Lost Communication. If all means of communication with the battalion are lost, the company commander may withdraw on his own. He can only do this if he has delayed for the required time or if his company is seriously endangered. Using whatever means he can, he must then tell the battalion commander of the action he has taken. If a platoon loses communication with the company, its leader uses his best judgment and withdraws according to the company plan or when seriously endangered. He must find a way to inform the company commander of his actions.
p. Reconnaissance of Positions and Routes. The battalion commander, company commander, and the platoon leaders reconnoiter positions and routes as much as possible before the delay begins. Plans are as detailed as time permits.
q. Company Commander's Instructions. Normally, the battalion commander gives the company commanders--
(1) The battalion task organization.
(2) Their initial delay positions.
(3) His plan for conducting the defenses, disengagements, and movements.
(4) Either a sector or delay position.
(5) The locations of the company assembly areas (AAs) (if used).
(6) General routes to follow from position to position (when delaying from delay positions).
(7) Instructions about the quartering party (if used).
(8) Any special instructions concerning the control of the TOWs and mortars, and the movement of the company vehicles.
(9) Priorities for efforts of the supporting engineers.
r. Platoon Leader's Instructions. Normally, the company commander gives the platoon leaders--
(1) Their initial delay positions to defend.
(2) His plan for conducting the defenses, disengagements, and movements.
(3) Subsequent positions to the rear.
(4) The locations of the platoon assembly areas (AAs) (when used).
(5) The location of the company AAs (when used).
(6) General routes to follow from position to position.
(7) Instructions about the quartering party (if used).
(8) Any special instructions concerning the control of the TOWs and mortars.
(9) Instructions on the movement of supplies, equipment, and vehicles.
(10) Priorities for efforts of the supporting engineers.
5. Withdrawal Operations. In a withdrawal the company disengages from the enemy and repositions for some other mission. That mission may be to delay the enemy, to defend another position, or to attack some place else.
a. Two Types of Withdrawals. The types of withdrawals are those not under pressure and those under pressure. In a withdrawal not under pressure, the company disengages and moves to its rear while the enemy is not attacking. The company must be ready to fight its way to the rear or to resume the defense should the enemy attack. In a withdrawal under pressure the company disengages and moves to its rear while the enemy is attacking. The company disengages by fighting its way to the rear.
b. Withdrawal Not Under Pressure. A withdrawal not under pressure is conducted with secrecy and deception. It is preferable to do it at night or during other periods of limited visibility such as fog, snow, rain, or smoke.
(1) Detachments Left in Contact (DLIC). Usually, all platoons move to the rear at the same time. However, the company leaves a security force called the detachment left in contact (DLIC), which is part of the battalion security force, to cover the withdrawal by deception and by maneuver, when required. (See Figure 2-3.) The DLIC strives to conceal the withdrawal and deceive the opposing force by continuing the operation patterns of the unit. If the opposing force attacks during the withdrawal, the DLIC covers the withdrawal with fire.
Figure 2-3. Withdrawal Not Under Pressure.
(2) Size, Composition, and Mission of the Battalion DLIC. The battalion commander directs the size, composition, and mission of the battalion DLIC. He also designates the battalion DLIC commander, who is normally the battalion executive officer (XO), the headquarters and headquarters command (HHC) commander, or one of the rifle company commanders.
(3) Battalion DLIC. The battalion commander may decide to leave one company as the battalion DLIC or have each company leave a company DLIC. The three company DLICs compose the battalion DLIC.
(4) Size, Composition, and Mission of the Company DLIC. The company commander directs the size, composition, and mission of the company DLIC. He also designates the DLIC commander, who is normally the company XO or a platoon leader.
(5) Company as Battalion DLIC. If the company is selected as the battalion DLIC, the company commander repositions platoons and weapons to cover the battalion's withdrawal. Figure 2-4 illustrates how the platoons and weapons are repositioned. This normally includes repositioning a platoon in each of the other company positions to cover the most dangerous avenues of approach into those positions. It also includes repositioning weapons to cover the most dangerous avenues of approach into the battalion's sector. As a rule, the DLIC company is reinforced by about half of the battalion's TOWs, mortars, Stingers, tanks, and GSRs.
Figure 2-4. Repositioning Platoons and Weapons When the Company is the Battalion DLIC.
(6) Company DLIC. If the company is directed to have a company DLIC (part of the battalion DLIC), it normally consists of one third of the company's rifle strength (one platoon) and half of the company's crew-served weapons. However, the company commander may have each platoon leave a platoon DLIC. The three platoon DLICs compose the company DLIC.
(7) Platoon as Company DLIC. If a platoon is selected as the company DLIC, the platoon leader repositions squads and weapons to cover the company's withdrawal. Normally, this includes repositioning a squad in each of the other platoon positions to cover the most dangerous avenue of approach into the company's position, and repositioning weapons to cover the most dangerous avenues of approach into the company's position.
(8) Each Platoon has a DLIC. If each platoon is to have a DLIC (part of the company DLIC), each platoon leader leaves one third of his rifle strength (one squad) and half of his key weapons (one machine gun and two Dragons). Normally, the platoon DLIC leader is the squad leader of the squad left in position. Each platoon DLIC comes under the control of the company DLIC commander when the withdrawal starts.
(9) Purpose of the DLIC. The DLIC, whether the battalion's or the company's, strives to conceal the withdrawal and deceive the enemy by continuing the normal operating patterns of the unit. If the enemy attacks during the withdrawal, the DLIC covers the withdrawal by fire. The DLIC commander orders the withdrawal of the DLIC, once the main body is at its next position. These orders should be given by telephone or code word over the radio. The DLIC then withdraws using the same basic plan as the main body used. The DLIC may have to conduct maneuver to the rear until contact is broken, and then assemble to move to the rear if under attack.
(10) Quartering Party. The battalion commander may send a quartering party to the next position before the withdrawal starts. Normally, this party consists of the battalion headquarter's personnel and representatives from each company (company quartering parties). Company representatives, under the control of the company XO, usually include the company first sergeant, company headquarters personnel, platoon sergeants, and a guide from each squad.
(11) Company Quartering Party. When the company's quartering party reaches the next position, its members reconnoiter and, as appropriate, picks the positions, sectors, routes, and observation posts (OPs) for the company. When the company arrives, the squad guides meet and guide their squads into position. The platoon sergeants meet and brief the platoon leaders on the positions and any other important information. The first sergeant meets and briefs the company commander.
(12) Company Plans. Normally, the battalion commander tells the company commanders--
(a) when the withdrawal will start.
(b) where the battalion assembly area is (if used), and what each company is to do on arrival in the AA.
(c) where each company assembly area is located.
(d) what routes to take from the company AAs to the battalion AA or the next position, including passage of lines.
(e) the size, composition, mission, and the commander of the battalion DLIC.
(f) upcoming battalion and company missions.
(g) when to move company vehicles to the rear.
(h) any special instructions on the control of TOWs and mortars.
(13) Platoon Planning. Based on the information received from the battalion commander, the company commander plans for and tells the platoon leaders, the XO, and the first sergeant--
(a) when and where the withdrawal will start.
(b) where the company AA is and what each platoon is to do upon arrival in the AA.
(c) where each platoon AA is located.
(d) what routes to take from the platoon AAs to the company AA.
(e) the size, composition, mission, and commander of the company DLIC.
(f) upcoming company and platoon missions.
(g) when to move company vehicles to the rear.
(h) any special instructions on the control of TOWs and mortars.
(14) Company DLIC Occupies the OPs. When the company DLIC occupies the OPs and positions of other companies, then the company commanders concerned coordinate the time and the sequence of the changeover. The changeover must occur at the designated time and before the companies begin their withdrawals.
(15) Consolidated Battalion Fire Plan. The DLIC fire support officer (FSO) obtains the consolidated battalion fire plan and coordinates all indirect fire for the DLIC. However, in some cases, the FSO may remain with the DLIC.
(16) Company Vehicles and Equipment. Before the withdrawal starts, all company vehicles and equipment not needed for the withdrawal are moved to the rear. They are either moved to the next position or to an AA where they link up with the company. The mortars are also moved to a position that allows them to support the withdrawal. To allow continuous coverage, several positions may be assigned to the mortars along the withdrawal route.
(17) Beginning the Withdrawal. The withdrawal begins at the time specified in the battalion order. Soldiers move from their fighting positions to their squad's AA. The squads then move to their platoon's AA. The platoons then move to the company AA. When all personnel and equipment are accounted for, the company moves as directed by the battalion commander. The complete move is characterized by stealth and secrecy.
(18) The DLIC Withdrawal. The DLIC follows the same basic plan that the main body used for withdrawal. The DLIC withdraws when the battalion's main body is at a designated location, after a designated length of time, or on command from the battalion commander.
c. Withdrawal Under Pressure. When a company is directed to withdraw from its sector or is forced from its defensive positions by the enemy, then a withdrawal under pressure is conducted. (See Figure 2-5.) The company may move to another position to continue the defense or disengage and move elsewhere for another mission.
(1) Disengagement From the Enemy. Each company tries to disengage from the enemy by maneuvering to the rear. Once a company has disengaged and moved to the rear of its original position, the battalion commander provides further direction. This may include--
(a) Covering the rearward movement of other companies.
(b) Occupying a new defensive position.
(c) Moving to perform another mission.
(2) Three Methods of Disengagement. Platoons have three basic methods of disengaging from the enemy, by thinning the lines, fire teams, or squads.
(3) Fire, Maneuver, and Bounding Overwatch. Fire, maneuver, and bounding overwatch are key elements for each method. The degree of and level at which these take place depends on how closely the enemy follows and the pressure he applies.
Figure 2-5. Withdrawal Under Pressure.
(a) Disengagement by Thinning the Lines. The first stage of maneuver rearward is in the squads. Squad and team leaders have soldiers move rearward singly. Each soldier takes a firing position to cover the move of the other. They, in turn, then move back. (See Figure 2-6).
Figure 2-6. Disengagement by Thinning the Lines.
(b) Disengagement by Fire Teams. Squads move back by fire teams if enemy fire is such that thinning the lines is not necessary, or if after having moved back far enough, it becomes no longer necessary. One fires and one moves and the squads alternate routes with each move. Figure 2-7 portrays one team firing while the other moves and then reversing the procedure while the second team moves.
Figure 2-7. Disengagement by Fire Teams.
(c) Disengagement by Squads. The platoon moves back by squads if enemy fire is such that maneuver by fire teams is unnecessary, or if squads have moved back to a point where it is no longer necessary. The platoon leader has each squad move back in turn, covered by fire of the others. (See Figure 2-8.)
Figure 2-8. Disengagement by Squads.
(4) Plans and Rehearsals. Usually, there is no time to make detailed plans or rehearse a withdrawal under pressure. The commander plans quickly and gives fragmentary orders (FRAGOs). A company standing operating procedure (SOP) for withdrawals under pressure helps eliminate lengthy orders.
(5) Withdrawal Sequence. The company commander controls the sequence in which the platoons withdraw. Usually, his decision on which unit to withdraw first is based on where the enemy attacks and how heavily each platoon is engaged. Normally, once the battalion commander directs the company to withdraw, the company commander withdraws his least heavily engaged platoon first. He usually directs that platoon to disengage and move into a position where it can overwatch the disengagement of the more heavily engaged platoons. The platoons then change roles and leapfrog to the rear, using maneuver.
(6) Bounding Overwatch. At some point in this action, the company can stop maneuvering and begin bounding overwatch to the rear. This move occurs when the company is no longer under enemy direct fire or when another company is covering its move. The company moves as directed by the battalion commander, once the disengagement is complete. Figure 2-9 illustrates the company bounding overwatch to the rear.
Figure 2-9. Bounding Overwitch to the Rear.
(7) Passage of Lines. If the withdrawing company is to make a passage of lines through a friendly unit to its rear, the company commander sends a quartering party to coordinate with that unit. (See Figure 2-10.) The quartering party arranges for the procedure of how and when the stationary unit will assume responsibility for the fight, as well as for--
(a) Recognition signals.
(b) Communications.
(c) Contact points.
(d) Passage points.
(e) Passage lanes.
(f) Assembly Areas.
(g) Guides.
(h) Traffic control.
(i) Fire support.
(j) Combat services support (CSS).
Figure 2-10. Passage of Lines.
(8) Retirements. A retirement is a retrograde operation in which a force that is not engaged with the enemy moves to the rear in an organized manner. Companies perform retirements as members of larger elements and use standard movement techniques. Retirements follow withdrawals or may occur before contact with the enemy. Leaders should consider the following when planning a retirement--
(a) Retiring units are normally covered by the security force of another unit to their rear.
(b) Retirements are conducted as a tactical road movement.
(c) Retiring units must be organized to fight but will do so only in self-defense.
(d) Security and speed are the most important considerations in conducting a retirement.
(e) Retiring units move at night when possible. They move in daylight only if their mission requires it or if the enemy cannot interfere with them.
(f) When the opposing force controls the air or can otherwise interdict friendly movement in depth, a retiring force may have to move by infiltration during daylight.
(g) The maximum use of operational security measures should be emphasized during the movement.
Part B
CONDUCT INFANTRY RETROGRADE OPERATIONS WITH METT-T AND THE MAJOR ADVANTAGES OF THE DEFENDER
1. Retrograde Operations. As mentioned in Part A, retrograde operations are organized movements away from the enemy. They are either forced or voluntary, and approval must always be gained from the commanding officer.
2. Types of Retrograde Operations. The three types of retrograde operations are delays, withdrawals, and retirements. In delays, units give ground to gain time. Delaying units inflict the greatest possible damage on the enemy while preserving their freedom of action. In withdrawals, all or part of a committed force disengages from the enemy voluntarily to preserve the force or free it for a new mission. In retirements, a force not in active combat with the enemy conducts a movement to the rear, normally as a tactical road march.
3. Considerations. As commanders make their initial estimates of the situation and prepare to conduct delays, they consider the factors of the mission, enemy, terrain/weather, troops, and time. These factors are referred to as METT-T.
a. Mission. The mission of the force states the higher commander's requirements for the delay. the commander develops the concept of the operation for the force as a whole. The commander specifies the duration and terrain limitations that apply to the operation. The commander must specify the degree of damage or risk to the force he is willing to accept, if he intends to employ the delaying force in his subsequent operations. In this case, the commander makes clear which parameter will govern, either duration and terrain or friendly loss.
b. Enemy. The strength, location, tactics, mobility, and capabilities of the enemy also have a large bearing on how the commander organizes his delay.
(1) Among the most important considerations for the delaying commander are patterns of enemy operations and the enemy's vulnerability to--
(a) Counterattack.
(b) Interdiction.
(c) Electronic warfare.
(d) Air attack.
(e) Canalization by obstacles.
(2) The commander must also examine the enemy's capability to--
(a) Conduct air attacks on the delaying force.
(b) Insert forces behind friendly units.
(c) Employ nuclear and chemical weapons.
c. Terrain. The terrain over which delays are conducted limits the commander's options.
(1) Open and Unobstructed Terrain. Open, unobstructed terrain makes delays more difficult to achieve. Such terrain favors the delaying force using armored, mechanized, and aviation units. This terrain also requires great engineer effort.
(2) Close or Broken Terrain. Close or broken terrain slows the enemy's movement but also makes maintaining contact with him more difficult.
(3) Wooded, Swampy, and Rugged Terrain. Infantry forces are better suited for the delay in wooded, swampy, and rugged terrain. Obstacles are easier to construct also.
(4) Effect's of Weather. Weather's chief effects on the delay are to promote or retard
(a) Cross-country movement.
(b) The use of aviation and air support.
(c) Construction of obstacles.
(5) Reduced Visibility. Commanders of brigades and smaller units must pay particular attention to the effects of reduced visibility. Limited visibility requires greater numbers of troop units to cover a given sector. It also affects the way they maneuver and fight. Early detection of the enemy is more difficult and long-range fires are less effective. Therefore, decisive engagement is harder to avoid.
d. Troops Available. The troops available to the delaying commander determine his actions to a large extent. As a rule, a delaying force should be as mobile or more mobile than its enemy. Because the delaying commander usually attempts to avoid decisive combat, his forces should also be capable of delivering accurate, long-range fires and of constructing significant obstacles.
(1) Armored, Mechanized, and Aviation Units. Armored, mechanized, and aviation units are best suited to delay.
(2) Cavalry Units. Cavalry units are specially organized and trained to conduct security missions and should be used to delay whenever they are available.
(3) Infantry Units. Infantry units can be employed to delay in close terrain or to occupy positions as part of the delay. When infantry units can be moved by air to positions in depth, they provide great flexibility to a delaying unit although their limited mobility makes them hard to disengage.
(4) Artillery and Engineer Units. Delaying forces rely heavily on artillery and engineer support. If they are to delay they also require substantial numbers of these units.
(5) Military Intelligence Units. Military intelligence units are valuable to a delaying commander. They assist him in maintaining contact with the enemy and slowing the enemy's movement by interrupting his communications.
(6) Air Defense Units. Air defense around critical points, such as river crossings and passage points, are also important in delays.
(7) Nuclear and Chemical Weapons. When authorized, commanders can use nuclear or chemical weapons to delay the enemy when they are authorized for tactical employment. They can do this by destroying critical enemy units, creating obstacles, and slowing the tempo of the attack by requiring--
(a) Masking.
(b) Decontamination.
(c) Dispersed movement.
e. Time. The final preliminary considerations for the commander include the time to prepare and the period of the delay.
(1) Time to Prepare. To effectively prepare for his operation, the commander must use available time effectively, as well as provide his subordinates with the maximum time possible to plan and prepare for their own operations.
(2) Period of Delay. The time the commander requires to delay the enemy determines the tactics he uses and the risks he has to accept.
4. Exploitation of the Advantages of the Defender. When given time, the commander has a number of advantages that allow him to defeat an attacking force much larger than his own.
a. Analyze the Terrain.
(1) The commander can analyze the terrain in detail, becoming intimately familiar with features that increase his chance of success. The attacker, on the other hand, must feel his way over the terrain, seeing the area for the first time. The commander has his company--
(a) Prepare positions.
(b) Construct obstacles.
(c) Conceal its efforts in advance.
(2) The attacker must guess where the defender is located. The commander initiates the fight from prepared, stationary positions, which are difficult to detect and provide cover from enemy fire. The attacker must react to the defender and either fire while moving or lose momentum by seeking covered positions.
b. Develop Flexible Plans. To fit any predictable situation, the commander develops flexible plans for control of fire, movement, communication, and logistics.
5. Retrograde Operations With Tanks. In retrograde operations, tanks are normally used to cover the withdrawal of the infantry. If the infantry's next rearward position is at a great distance, the infantry can first withdraw to a nearby covered position. The tanks then break contact on signal and quickly move to rearward overwatch positions where they continue to cover the infantry's withdrawal. Some infantryman should stay with the tanks at all times to provide security if the retrograde operation is conducted during poor visibility.
Part C
COMMON DEFENSIVE TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED BY LIGHT INFANTRY PLATOON
1. General.
a. Many techniques are used in the defense. The use of any single technique or combination of techniques depends on the estimated situation and mission analysis performed by leaders.
b. In some cases, either the company or battalion directs a specific technique that a squad or platoon uses if it is the hingepoint for the company or battalion defense.
c. The most common defensive techniques employed by light infantry platoons and squads include--
(1) Defense in sectors.
(2) Defense on a Reverse Slope.
(3) Mutually Supporting Battle Positions.
(4) Perimeter defense.
2. Defense in sectors.
a. Defense in sector maximizes combat capabilities of light infantry. Using dispersed small-unit tactics, defense in sector allows the unit to fight throughout the depth of the sector. See Figure 2-11.
b. Usually, the platoon is assigned a sector within the company sector. The platoon leader may in turn assigns sectors to individual squads. This should be done to permit maximum freedom of action for the squad to defend. The platoon leader must remember that the squad has no organic capability to call for supporting fire other than through the platoon net. The platoon leader or company commander may attach FIST elements, or, as a minimum, they must be prepared to assist in calls for supporting fire.
Figure 2-11. Assigned Sectors.
(1) Detailed Reconnaissance. Following the commander's concept, each squad conducts detailed reconnaissance of its sector. (See Figure 2-12.) The detailed reconnaissance also identifies all likely enemy avenues of approach chokepoints, kill zones, obstacle sites, patrol bases, cache sites, and tentative positions.
Figure 2-12. Reconnaissance Results.
(2) Concept of Operation. The platoon leader(s) confirms the selection of tentative sites and incorporates them into a concept of the operation. This concept of operation designates the initial positions and the sequence in which successive positions are occupied. The platoon leader gives each squad specific guidance as to contingency plans, rally points, and other coordinating instructions. The platoon leader(s) briefs his concept of the operation to the company commander. (See Figure 2-13.)
Figure 2-13. Concept of Operation.
(3) Preparation of the Defense. Squads then proceed to prepare the defense in the sequence designated by the platoon leader
(a) Initially, hasty fighting positions are prepared at all sites and improved as time permits.
(b) The unit occupies its first position and prepares to engage the enemy when security warns of approaching enemy. An ambush is then initiated as the enemy moves into the chokepoint or kill zone. As long as squads do not become decisively engaged, then enemy targets are engaged.
(c) The squad(s) then moves to its next position and repeats the process.
(4) METT-T. Depending upon METT-T, the entire battle may be fought this way. Variations of this technique include, but are not limited to, the following--
(a) Exhausting the Enemy. To completely destroy the enemy, he must be allowed to exhaust himself by reacting to the numerous ambushes, and then units conduct a violent counterattack along previously rehearsed routes. The platoon leader may do this by retaining direct control over a large portion of the platoon and committing it at the decisive moment. An alternate method is to use prearranged signals to consolidate the entire platoon at a rally point before conducting the counterattack.
(b) Holding Fire. The forward ambush teams hold their fire until the lead elements of the enemy formation hit another ambush deeper in the sector. They then ambush the next enemy element through the kill zone. This destroys the enemy's cohesion and is especially effective if the ambush can be triggered by killing the enemy command group.
(c) Triggering Mechanical Ambushes. Use elements smaller than a squad (two fire teams, three 3-man teams) to trigger mechanical ambushes, or to act as snipers. This increases the area covered and the number of directions from which the enemy is hit. This exhausts and confuses the enemy, and it allows the platoon to form a reserve.
(d) Planning Indirect Fires. Planning indirect fires causes more casualties at ambush sites along a well-defined route (where the enemy is likely to "back up")
(5) Platoon Leaders. Platoon leaders coordinate all combat support (CS) and CSS for their squads, to include fire support, resupply, medical evacuation, and extraction.
3. Defense on a Reverse Slope. An infantry company or platoon can organize a defense on the reverse slope of a hill as shown in Figure 2-14. This defense is on the part of a hill or ridge that is masked from enemy direct fire and ground observation by the crest. The unit must control the crest either by fire or physical occupation.
a. Advantages. The advantages of defending from a reverse slope are as follows--
(1) Enemy ground observation of the position is masked.
(2) More freedom of movement exists in the position due to the enemy's lack of ground observation.
(3) Enemy direct-fire weapons cannot hit the position.
(4) Enemy indirect fire is less effective due to the lack of enemy ground observation.
(5) The defender gains surprise.
b. Disadvantages. The disadvantages of defending from the reverse slope are as follows--
(1) Soldiers have more difficulty observing the enemy. They can see no farther forward than the hill or ridge crest, making it difficult to determine just where the enemy is as he advances. This is especially true under conditions of limited visibility. OPs must be placed well forward of the topographic crest for early warning and long-range observation.
(2) Moving out of the position may be more difficult.
(3) Fields of fire are normally short.
(4) Obstacles on the forward slope can only be covered with indirect fire or by units on the flanks, unless some weapons are initially placed forward.
(5) If the enemy arrives at the crest, he can assault down the hill. This may give him a psychological advantage.
(6) If enough OPs are not established or if they are not located in the right positions, the enemy may suddenly appear at close range without enough warning.
Figure 2-14. Defending From the Reverse Slope.
c. Forward Platoons. The forward platoons are from 200 to 500 meters from the crest of the hill where they can have the best fields of fire and still have the advantage of the reverse slope.
d. Overwatch Platoon. If it places them in supporting distance, the overwatch platoon is positioned on the forward slope of the next high ground to the rear (counterslope). Tasks assigned to the overwatch platoon are as follows--
(1) Protect the flanks and rear of the forward positions.
(2) Reinforce the fires of the forward elements.
(3) Block penetrations of the forward positions.
(4) Cover the withdrawal of forward units.
(5) Counterattack.
e. Final Protective Fires (FPFs). Platoons plan indirect FPFs on or short of the crest of the hill to deny that area to the enemy and to help break up his assault.
f. Observation Posts. Platoons position their OPs on, or just forward of, the crest of the hill to watch the entire platoon's sector of fire. The OPs can vary in size from two soldiers to a squad reinforced with machine guns and antiarmor weapons. Machine guns and automatic rifles are positioned to allow the most effective surprise fire on the enemy as he crosses the crest. Machine gun final protective lines (FPLs) are planned as in a defense of a forward slope.
g. Obstacles. Leaders place obstacles below the crest of the hill. Tied in with a FPF, this can be effective in stopping or slowing an assault.
h. Forward Slope Defense. The conduct of the defense from a reverse slope is the same as from a forward slope. However, the OPs forward of the position not only warn of the enemy's advance but also delay, deceive, and disorganize him by fire. They withdraw before they are closely engaged with the enemy. Machine guns with the OPs withdraw first so they can occupy their primary fighting positions before the enemy reaches the crest. As the OPs withdraw, indirect fire is directed on the forward slope and on the crest of the hill to slow the advance of the enemy. Soldiers in primary positions hold their fire until the enemy crosses the crest. As the enemy moves over the crest of the hill, the defenders fire all available fire.
i. Counterattack. An ideal time to counterattack is when the enemy crests the hill and is destroyed by fire. Leaders must ensure the counterattack does not expose friendly forces to enemy supporting fires or follow-on echelons.
j. Sectors of Fire. When the enemy's assault across the crest is defeated, he tries to turn, bypass, or envelop the defense. To counter this, the overwatch element of defense orients its primary sectors of fire to the flanks of the forward slope. Also, the defense must have an effective secondary sector with appropriate supplementary positions and obstacles, as well as reconnaissance elements to warn if the enemy tries to envelop or bypass the position. If the defenders can do this effectively, they will consistently catch the attackers by surprise. Against an armored, motorized, or road-bound attack, commanders and leaders should position antiarmor weapons and machine guns so their primary sectors of fire are to the flanks of the reverse slope.
4. Mutually Supporting Battle Positions. Squads and platoons use this technique to concentrates firepower into a given engagement area. This technique prevents the attacker from focusing on the entire defensive scheme.
a. Platoon Positions. Leaders must ensure the position is organized in depth down to each fighting position. The position must also provide complete coverage by fire of all natural lines of natural drift. Each fighting position must be supported by another position that can deliver direct fires into the flank or rear of the enemy attacking it.
NOTE |
b. Squad Positions. Squad positions are organized in depth also. They are organized so that any one squad is supported by the direct fires of others. It is this "web" of interlocking fires in depth that the technique refers to. Obstacles are tied into the fire plan to slow and stop the enemy in the engagement area. The defense uses patrols forward of the battle position to provide security and harass the enemy. They will disorganize and confuse him as to the location of the main defenses. All positions must have overlapping fields of fire.
c. Unit Positions. Critical elements for a successful seamless web defense technique include the positioning of units, organization of the engagement area, and fire control measures.
(1) Positioning of Units. Units are positioned in relation to avenues of approach.
(2) Engagement Area. Engagement areas on the avenues of approach are designated as fire control measures by commanders and leaders based on METT-T. Squads and platoons are responsible for sectors within the engagement area.
(3) Fire Control Measures. Platoon leaders use control measures to mass fires against enemy infantry within their sector. If the enemy is expected to have armored vehicles, there must be a separate antiarmor fire control plan that addresses Dragons and attached TOWs or tanks. These weapons may be attached or OPCON to platoons. Normally they are controlled by the company commander.
d. Variation in the Unit Positions. Variations of the unit positions for the seamless web defense technique include--
(1) Simultaneous Fire. One variation is for the defense unit to open fire simultaneously and withdraw on command. This is for the platoon or company ambush.
(2) Firing One Element at a Time. Another variation involves opening fire, one element at a time. As the enemy orients on each element firing and begins to maneuver against it, other elements open fire and the original element withdraws and either shifts to a new position or a rally point.
(3) Maneuver. The defense units can also maneuver to prevent enemy withdrawal or reinforcement as another variation of the seamless web defense.
(4) Multiple Engagement Areas. The defense units can designate more than one engagement area and use supplementary and on-order positions and secondary sectors of fire to mass fires into the engagement areas as required.
5. Perimeter Defense. A perimeter defense may be used in a reserve position, in an assembly area or patrol base, on a semi-independent operation, during resupply, or when the company is isolated.
a. Characteristics of the Perimeter Defense. The characteristics of a perimeter defense include--
(1) Units and Personnel. In the perimeter defense, units and personnel are distributed more or less equally through all 360-degrees (other techniques have 360-degree security but do not always have personnel through all 360-degrees.)
(2) Distance Between Squads and Positions. There is less distance between squads and individual positions in the perimeter defense.
(3) Squads and Individual Positions. Squads and individual positions must have interlocking fires to the right and left when participating in the perimeter defense.
(4) Combat Power. During a perimeter defense, the bulk of the combat power is placed on the outer edge of the position.
(5) Penetrations. No penetrations of the perimeter are permitted in a perimeter defense. Any that occur are immediately counterattacked.
b. Perimeters Established at Night. Perimeter defenses that also serve as patrol bases or assembly areas are often established in the dark. In this case, it is easiest to use a triangle or circle formation.
(1) Positioning the Soldiers. For purposes of control, soldiers may have to be positioned in a straight line along the perimeter. This ensures that they do not shoot each other in the dark. However, as soon as it is light enough to see, the soldiers are repositioned in a staggered formation to add depth to the position.
(2) Establishing Depth. Depth is also provided by retaining a small reserve under control of the platoon leader or squad leader to counterattack penetrations or reinforce threatened areas. See Figure 2-15. The reserve consists of a fire team plus the platoon headquarters under the platoon sergeant, one squad leader, and one squad automatic weapon (SAW) gunner for the squad's perimeter. Within the platoon perimeter, squad supplementary and alternate positions can be used to add depth.
Figure 2-15. Perimeter Defense.
c. Perimeters Established During Daylight. Perimeters established during daylight conform as closely to the terrain as possible. Therefore, they may not be circular or triangular in shape. Each position must interlock with the one to the right and left.
d. Early Warning. Security patrols and OPs are used to provide early warning and perhaps delay the approaching enemy with fires during the perimeter defense.
Practice Exercise
