IN0201 Lesson Two

Lesson 2

OPERATIONS

OVERVIEW

Lesson Description:

This lesson explains techniques and procedures used by infantry squads and platoons. These techniques are used throughout the planning and execution phases of tactical operations.

Terminal Learning Objective:

*Action:*	Explain the operational techniques and procedures used by infantry squads in planning and executing tactical operations.

*Condition:*	Given the information contained in Lesson 2.

*Standard:*	You must attain a score of 70 percent, or more, on the subcourse examination.

*References:*	FM 7-8.

INTRODUCTION

A proficient squad leader must have a solid understanding of the command and control, security, and movement techniques which apply to small units. He must be thoroughly familiar with the operations performed by squads and platoons, along with the employment of CS and CSS assets available. Finally, he must be able to perform and lead under all conditions. This lesson provides the information necessary to enable the squad leader to perform the above tasks.

Part A

COMMAND AND CONTROL

1. Mission Tactics. Mission tactics is the term used to describe the exercise of command authority by a leader. Mission tactics places the relationship of command, control, and communications in proper perspective by emphasizing the predominance of command. This emphasis on command, rather than control, provides for initiative, the acceptance of risk, and the rapid seizure of opportunities on the battlefield. Mission tactics can be viewed as freedom of action for the leader to execute his mission in the way he sees fit, rather than being told how to do it. Mission tactics reinforced by the knowledge of the higher commander's intent and focused on a decisive point establishes the necessary basis for small-unit leadership.

a. Philosophy. The philosophy of mission tactics extends throughout all levels of command. Leaders must be provided the maximum freedom to command and have imposed on them only the control necessary to synchronize battlefield activities toward mission accomplishment. Sometimes, leaders must issue specific instructions. Normally, this is necessary when the unit's actions must be synchronized with other actions. Mission tactics, as a command philosophy, recognizes the many tools available to the leader but emphasizes that there is no substitute for the personal element of command.

b. Execution. Execution of mission tactics requires initiative, resourcefulness, and imagination. Initiative must be driven by the commander's intent, not merely by a desire for independent action. Leaders must be resourceful enough to adapt to situations as they are, not as they were expected to be.

c. Control. Platoon and squad leaders also must effectively control their subordinates. Control restricts command. Generally, increased control leads to less application of command. Not all control is bad or counterproductive. For example, common doctrine is a form of control in that all leaders expect their subordinates to understand and apply the tenets of Army Operations . Another common source of control is the use of graphics for operation overlays. While optional and situational-dependent, these are restrictive and must be reviewed by the leader before implementation. Each control measure must have a specific purpose that contributes to mission accomplishment. If it does not pass this purpose test, it unnecessarily restricts freedom of action and should not be used.

d. Synchronism. Control is necessary to synchronize the actions of elements participating in an operation. The more complex the operation, the greater the amount of control needed. The challenge to leaders is to provide the minimal amount of control required and still allow for decentralized execution.

(1) Mission tactics requires that leaders learn how to think rather than what to think. It recognizes that the subordinate is often the only person at the point of decision who can make an informed decision. Guided by the commander's intent, the mission, and the concept of the operation, the leader can make the right decision.

(2) At platoon and squad level, useful forms of control include common doctrine, mission, concept of the operation, time, and control measures.

(a) Doctrine, especially in the form of battle drills and unit SOPs that prescribe a way of performing a task, provides an element of control. By limiting the ways in which a task is performed to standard, battle drills and unit SOPs provide a common basis for action; allow for quick, practiced response; decrease the probability for confusion and loss of cohesion; and reduce the number of decisions to the essential minimum.

(b) The mission statement of the platoon is also a form of control. Its purpose provides the basis for decision and allows freedom of action. Its task provides a basis for establishing the main effort and focuses all other actions toward mission accomplishment.

(c) The concept of the operation identifies the main and supporting efforts for the higher unit and describes how a commander sees the execution of the operation. This allows the maximum possible freedom of action for the subordinate leader tasked with executing the main effort. Leaders executing the supporting effort will have less freedom of action because they must key their actions on the main effort. The concept of the operation also details the control of fires and other combat multipliers which must be synchronized and focused to support the mission.

(d) Leaders use time to control units or individuals by establishing specifically when a task should begin or be complete. Control using time is especially critical when the platoon's actions must be synchronized with other units or supporting elements.

(e) Another source of control is the use of control measures. These include instructions to subordinate units, fire commands, and the use of operational graphics in overlays. While normally optional and situational-dependent, control measures are potentially restrictive and must be reviewed by leaders before incorporating them into their plans. To ensure the proper amount of control, each control measure must have a specific purpose that contributes to mission accomplishment, or prevents fratricide. If it does not pass this test, it unnecessarily restricts freedom of action and should not be used.

e. Mission Tactics: Platoon and squad leaders use mission tactics to accomplish the mission. They give orders and instructions that communicate the higher commander's intent; the mission (task and purpose) of the unit; and the concept of the operation, to include control measures. They also use mission tactics to ensure that subordinates understand that they are expected to use initiative in making decisions when the situation is no longer what it was expected to be.

2. Troop Leading Procedures. Troop leading is the process a leader goes through to prepare his unit to accomplish a tactical mission. It begins when he is alerted for a mission. It starts again when he receives a change or a new mission. The troop-leading procedure comprises the steps listed below. Steps 3 through 8 may not follow a rigid sequence. Many of them may be accomplished concurrently. In combat, rarely will leaders have enough time to go through each step in detail. Leaders must use the procedure as outlined, if only in abbreviated form, to ensure that nothing is left out of planning and preparation and that their soldiers understand the mission and prepare adequately. They continuously update their estimates throughout the preparation phase and adjust their plans as appropriate.

a. STEP 1. Receive the Mission. The leader may receive the mission in a warning order, an operation order (OPORD), or a fragmentary order (FRAGO). He immediately begins to analyze it using the factors of METT-T-

(1) What is the MISSION?

(2) What is known about the ENEMY?

(3) How will TERRAIN and weather affect the operation?

(4) What TROOPS are available?

(5) How much TIME is available?

(a) The leader should use no more than one third of the available time for his own planning and for issuing his operation order. The remaining two thirds is for subordinates to plan and prepare for the operation. Leaders should also consider other factors such as available daylight and travel time to and from orders and rehearsals. In the offense, the leader has one third of the time from his receipt of the mission to a given deadline (e.g., LD, assault, or other commitment time). In the defense, he has one third of the time from mission receipt to the time the squad or platoon must be prepared to defend.

(b) In scheduling preparation activities, the leader should work backwards from the LD or defend time. This is reverse planning. He must allow enough time for the completion of each task.

b. STEP 2. Issue a Warning Order. The leader provides initial instructions in a warning order. The warning order contains enough information to begin preparation as soon as possible. Platoon SOPs should prescribe who will attend all warning orders and the actions they must take upon receipt; for example, drawing ammunition, rations and water, and checking communications equipment. The warning order has no specific format. One technique is to use the five-paragraph OPORD format. The leader issues the warning order with all the information he has available at the time. He provides updates as often as necessary. The leader never waits for information to fill a format. A sample warning order is in Figure 2-1. If available, the following information may be included in a warning order-

(1) The mission or nature of the operation.

(2) Who is participating in the operation.

(3) Time of the operation.

(4) Time and place for issuance of the operation order.

Figure 2-1. Example of Platoon Warning Order

c. STEP 3. Make a Tentative Plan. The leader develops an estimate of the situation to use as the basis for his tentative plan. The estimate is the military decision making process. It consists of five steps: detailed mission analysis, situation analysis and course of action development, analysis of each course of action, comparison of each course of action, and decision. The decision represents the consensus COA, which develops into a tentative plan. The leader updates the estimate continuously and refines his plan accordingly. He uses this plan as the start point for coordination, reconnaissance, task organization (if required), and movement instructions. He works through this problem solving sequence in as much detail as time available allows. As the basis of his estimate, the leader considers the factors of METT-T:

(1) Mission. The leader considers his mission as given to him by his commander. He analyzes it in light of the commander's intent two command levels higher and derives the essential tasks his unit must perform in order to accomplish the mission.

(2) Enemy. The leader considers the type, size, organization, tactics, and equipment of the enemy he expects to encounter. He identifies their greatest threat to his mission and their greatest vulnerability.

(3) Terrain. The leader considers the effect of terrain and weather on enemy and friendly forces using the guidelines below (OCOKA):

(a) Observation and Fields of Fire. The leader considers ground that allows him observation of the enemy throughout his area of operation. He considers fields of fire in terms of the characteristics of the weapons available to him; for example, maximum effective range, the requirement for grazing fire, and the arming range and time of flight for antiarmor weapons.

(b) Cover and Concealment. The leader looks for terrain that will protect him from direct and indirect fires (cover) and from aerial and ground observation (concealment).

(c) Obstacles. In the attack, the leader considers the effect of restrictive terrain on his ability to maneuver. In the defense, he considers how he will tie in his reinforcing obstacles to the terrain to disrupt, turn, fix, or block an enemy force and protect his own forces from enemy assault.

(d) Key Terrain. Key terrain is any locality or area the control of which affords a marked advantage to either combatant. In the offense, the leader considers key terrain in his selection of objectives, support positions, and routes. In the defense, key terrain influences the positioning of his unit.

(e) Avenues of Approach. An avenue of approach is an air or ground route of an attacking force of a given size leading to its objective or key terrain in its path. In the offense, the leader identifies the avenue of approach that affords him the greatest protection and places him at the enemy's most vulnerable spot. In the defense, the leader positions his key weapons along the avenue of approach most likely to be used by the enemy.

(f) Weather. In considering the effects of weather, the leader is most interested in visibility and trafficability.

(4) Troops Available. The leader considers the strength of subordinate units, the characteristics of his weapon systems, and the capabilities of attached elements as he assigns tasks to subordinate units.

(5) Time Available. The leader refines his allocation of time based on the tentative plan and any changes to the situation.

d. STEP 4. Start Necessary Movement. The platoon may need to begin movement while the leader is still planning or forward reconnoitering. The platoon sergeant or a squad leader may bring the platoon forward, usually under the control of the company executive officer or first sergeant. This step could occur at any time during the troop-leading procedure.

e. STEP 5. Reconnoiter. If time allows, the leader makes a personal reconnaissance to verify his terrain analysis, adjust his plan, confirm the useability of routes, and time any critical movements. When time does not allow, the leader must make a map reconnaissance. The leader must consider the risk inherent in conducting reconnaissance forward of friendly lines. Sometimes, the leader must rely on others (for example, scouts) to conduct the reconnaissance if the risk of contact with the enemy is high.

f. STEP 6. Complete the Plan. The leader completes his plan based on the reconnaissance and any changes in the situation. He should review his mission, as he received it from his commander, to ensure that his plan meets the requirements of the mission and stays within the framework of the commander's intent.

g. STEP 7. Issue the Complete Order. Platoon and squad leaders normally issue oral operations orders.

(1) To aid subordinates in understanding the concept for the mission, leaders should issue the order within sight of the objective or on the defensive terrain. When this is not possible, they should use a terrain model or sketch.

(2) Leaders must ensure that subordinates understand the mission, the commander's intent, the concept of the operation, and their assigned tasks. Leaders may require subordinates to repeat all or part of the order or demonstrate on the model or sketch, their understanding of the operation. They should also quiz their soldiers to ensure that all soldiers understand the mission.

h. STEP 8. Supervise. The leader supervises the unit's preparation for combat by conducting rehearsals and inspections.

(1) Rehearsals. The leader uses rehearsals to-

(a) Practice essential tasks (improve performance).

(b) Reveal weaknesses or problems in the plan.

(d) Improve soldier understanding of the concept of the operation (foster confidence in soldiers).

Rehearsals include the practice of having squad leaders brief their planned actions in execution sequence to the platoon leader.

The leader should conduct rehearsals on terrain that resembles the actual ground, and in similar light conditions.

The platoon may begin rehearsals of battle drills and other SOP items before the receipt of the operation order. Once the order has been issued, it can rehearse mission specific tasks.

(e) Some important tasks to rehearse include:

Actions on the objective.

Assaulting a trench, bunker, or building.

Actions at the assault position.

Breaching obstacles (mine and wire).

Using special weapons or demolitions.

Actions on unexpected enemy contact.

(2) Inspections. Squad leaders should conduct initial inspections shortly after receipt of the warning order. The platoon sergeant spot checks throughout the unit's preparation for combat. The platoon leader and platoon sergeant make a final inspection. They should inspect-

(a) Weapons and ammunition.

(b) Uniforms and equipment.

(d) Soldier's understanding of the mission and their specific responsibilities.

(e) Communications.

(f) Rations and water.

(g) Camouflage.

(h) Deficiencies noted during earlier inspections.

3. Operation Order Format. An operation order (OPORD) is a directive issued by the leader to his subordinate leaders in order to effect the coordinated execution of a specific operation.

a. The leader briefs his OPORD orally from notes that follow the five-paragraph format (Figure 2-2).

b. The leader uses a fragmentary order (FRAGO) to change an existing order. He normally uses the OPORD format, but addresses only those elements that have changed. The leader should make his instructions brief, clear, simple, and specific.

c. Annexes provide the instructions for conducting specific operations (such as air assault, boat, and truck movement, stream crossings, establishing patrol bases, and airborne insertions), if they are so detailed that a platoon SOP is insufficient for a particular situation. The format is the same as the five paragraph OPORD.

d. An operation overlay is a tracing of graphic control measures on a map. It shows boundaries, unit positions, routes, objectives, and other control measures. It helps clarify the operation order. Platoons normally trace their overlays from the company operations map. Squad leaders transfer control measures onto their maps as necessary. The subordinate's need for higher unit's graphics must be balanced against the risk of the enemy obtaining this information.

e. When possible, the leader uses a vantage point over-looking the actual terrain model to brief his OPORD. He may also use terrain models or concept sketches or a large, rough drawings of the objective areas to show the flow of events and actions clearly.

(1) Concept Sketch. The sketch shows the locations and positions of objectives, control measures, and key terrain in relation to each other. It is not necessarily drawn to scale.

Figure 2-2. Example of an Operation Order.

Figure 2-2. Example of an Operation Order (continued).

(2) Terrain Model. A terrain model is a three-dimensional scale model of the terrain (Figure 2-3). It is effective for briefing and discussing the actions on the objective. It may depict the entire mission area. However, for offensive missions, priority should be given to building a model of the objective area.

Figure 2-3. Terrain Model Techniques.

(a) It should be built oriented to the ground (north on the model is north on the ground) and should show the main terrain features in the area.

(b) The next step after orienting the model to the ground is the construction of grid squares. The leader should identify the grid squares that the model will show. These ensure a more accurate model.

(d) Material for constructing the model includes string, yarn (various colors), chalk (colored), 3x5 cards, target markers, or unit markers.

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Lesson 2 Part B
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