Military

a. Throughout history soldiers have employed techniques of camouflage to conceal themselves or their intentions from the enemy. Successful concealment adds the value of surprise in attack and provides security in defense. Although modern warfare employs increasingly complex and deadly weapon systems and highly sophisticated electronic surveillance devices, the necessity and importance of deceiving the enemy remains.

b. The essential part of any military deception is proper application of countersurveillance techniques and principles. Correctly used, countersurveillance can spell the difference between victory and defeat; to an individual, it can mean the difference between life and death. Small semi-independent units must furnish their own security, reconnaissance, surveillance, and countersurveillance. They must be able to exist for long periods of time with a minimum of control and support from higher headquarters. As a result, their success depends to a large extent upon their ability to remain undetected by the enemy.

a. Direct. When methods of detection are direct, the observer uses his senses, principally sight, hearing, and smell, to gather information about the existence, identification, or scope of enemy activity. Of these, by far the most important is sight. The human eye has a remarkable range sensitivity -- a candle flame had been seen from a distance of 30 miles on a clear dark night. The ears are also sensitive -- tests indicate a ticking watch can be heard 20 feet away. Even though concealment from visual observation is complete, the sounds of voices, footfalls, or running engines easily give away a position. The sense of smell is often overlooked. The ability to detect and identify characteristic odors can lead to detection of the enemy. Under ideal conditions, cigarette smoke can be identified from a distance of a quarter of a mile; exhaust fumes and cooking odors carry even farther.

b. Indirect. Indirect methods of surveillance include all of the mechanical, electrical, and chemical devices which extend the range of the human senses. Many of these devices record the detected image on film or tape. They include both ground and aerial cameras, infrared devices, chemical (olfactory) sensors, ground-to-ground and air-to-ground radar, and starlight scopes. All such devices have the effect of reducing or eliminating the protection once afforded by distance or darkness. To be effective, camouflage efforts must be designed to defeat these devices (table 5-1) as well as direct methods of surveillance.

a. Detection capability. By far, the most commonly used surveillance method is photography, both ground and aerial. Aerial photography is indispensable in camouflage inspection and detection, revealing and recording data often unnoticed by the unaided eye. Film sensitivity has kept pace with the development of high resolution lens systems, making modern aerial cameras capable of recording minute detail from very high altitudes. Camouflage measures that are aimed only at ground observers will fail if the enemy has any aerial surveillance capability. Good camouflage must be three-dimensional to counter aerial surveillance.

b. Types of aerial photography. There are two major types of aerial photography in common use for surveillance purposes, vertical and oblique. Photography from multiple camera installations combining the two types, and from scanning-type (panoramic) cameras is also used. Most vertical photography is planned and flown for map-making purposes. Aerial photography for mapping purposes must meet very exacting requirements and must be flown under carefully controlled conditions. When available, such photography is invaluable to surveillance personnel. It is seldom obtainable, however, under combat conditions. Reconnaissance and surveillance needs are more often met by various kinds of oblique photography (fig 5-1), which cover a greater area with fewer flights. Many of the factors which provide the controlled geometry of mapping photography are disregarded in reconnaissance flights. When necessary, even pictures taken with hand-held cameras from helicopters or other small aircraft can provide valuable information. For purposes of camouflage detection, it should be remembered in areas of moderate to rugged relief, defilade may limit the information recorded on low altitude oblique photography.

a. Doppler radar is a line-of-sight device used primarily to detect movement. Because it is line-of-sight, maximum use of defilade is the best means of avoiding detection by doppler radar. Very slow, controlled movement is effective against certain types of these devices. Doppler radar is less effective when it is raining because of the resulting clutter in the reception of pulses.

b. Air-to-ground radar is generally used with film or tape to record the reflected pulses. The resulting imagery is similar in appearance to aerial photography and has been extensively used for mapping purposes in areas of heavy cloud cover, where light sensitive film cannot be used. The radar waves penetrate fog, haze, Or smoke and return an accurate indication of the shape of the terrain. This penetrating quality of air-to-ground radar waves is invaluable in detecting hidden radar-reflectant equipment. It is important to remember foliage cover alone cannot be relied upon completely to defeat detection by air-to-ground radar. Concealment from this form of radar depends upon reduction or scattering of the reflected pulses, achieved by digging in, defilade, or the use of special radar-scattering screening materials.

a. There are two types of infrared detectors: active (near) emits electromagnetic energy not visible to the human eyes; passive (far) is sensitive to the longest, or thermal wavelengths of the spectrum, and detects, rather than emits energy.

b. Active infrared, like doppler radar, emits line-of-sight waves. It also detects the different reflectant qualities of natural and artificial materials. Any of the measures which reduce or eliminate the contrast between objects and their natural backgrounds are effective countermeasures against this type of surveillance. These include tree canopy, cut green vegetation, net screening systems, and all camouflage paints used for pattern painting.

c. Concealment from passive infrared depends upon reducing heat emission of subjects which are hotter than their surroundings. Therefore, some insulation or shield must be used. Defilade, heavy brush, or even tree cover will at least attenuate the heat radiation; to what extent depends upon the density or thickness of the cover. It should also be noted screening nets, although they reflect active infrared waves, do not shield a hidden object which emits heat from detection by passive infrared devices. These devices are affected by rain, however, which can cause sufficient clutter in the receiver to render them ineffective.

a. Starlight scopes are special optical devices which greatly amplify reduced light to permit visual perception under night conditions. Countermeasures include all of the means of concealment from visual detection in daylight.

b. Olfactory (chemical sensors). Various kinds of sensors can detect and identify certain chemical compounds associated with military activities or equipment. In general, the effectiveness of such devices can be reduced by avoiding unnecessary operation of any fuel-burning engine, and by keeping all engines in efficient operating condition to cut down on the discharge of exhaust fumes. Another measure is the installation of converters which break down detectable chemical compounds into components which do not affect the sensors.

a. Shape or pattern. Shape is probably the most important single factor in recognizing the objects around us. It is also of great importance in recognizing objects from their photographic images. Items of military equipment, such as trucks, tanks, and guns, have distinctive outlines, making them easy to identify, on the ground or on photographs. Thus, it is very important to avoid any position which creates a silhouette against the sky or a contrasting background. The characteristic shape of an object can be hidden or altered by the use of screening nets, branches of foliage, tree canopy, or digging in. One of the objectives of pattern painting is to alter the apparent shape of objects. Seen from the air, man-made features usually are regular in form, or have straight or smoothly-curved lines. Examples of these are buildings, highways, and railroads. Natural features, such as streams, shorelines, or wooded areas, are generally irregular in shape. In addition, the way objects are arranged on the ground sometimes creates distinctive patterns which are easy to identify by aerial observers. Examples of such patterns are military posts, ammunition dumps, and housing developments. The orderly rows of trees in an orchard, seen from the air, contrasts sharply with the random growth of natural vegetation. To avoid detection, avoid creating a characteristic pattern that reveals a military activity (fig 5-2)

b. Color or tone. Strong, bright, sharply-contrasting colors are quickly noticed, and can even be seen through screening nets. Color is also an important factor when color or camouflage detection (CD) aerial film is used for surveillance. Colors which do not blend properly into the surrounding terrain are immediately apparent on color photographs. The red-blue/green color contrast on CD film reveals poor camouflage as well as objects that are not camouflaged at all. On black-and-white and infrared photos, tones of gray indicate differences in color, textures, or infrared reflectance. To counter the revealing factor of color or tonal differences, all military equipment and clothing should blend as much as possible with the surrounding terrain, and should be infrared reflectant. Darker shades are usually less noticeable than lighter shades of the same color. Camouflage materials such as paints, nets, and clothing are available in different seasonal and climate color blends to match as closely as possible the surrounding terrain. If cut foliage is used, it must be kept fresh and replaced when necessary to retain its infrared-reflectant qualities.

c. Texture. Closely related to tone, texture refers to the ability of an object to reflect, absorb, or diffuse light. It may be defined as the relative smoothness or roughness of the surface. A rough surface, such as a field of grass, reflects little light and casts many shadows on itself. Consequently, it appears very dark to the eye or on a photograph. A smooth surface, such as an airstrip, even though it might be painted the same color as the surrounding terrain would show up as a lighter tone on a photograph. Very smooth, almost textureless surfaces reflect both natural and artificial light. This is known as shine, one of the most revealing breaches of camouflage discipline. Every effort must be made to eliminate the shine from smooth surfaces, including windshields, headlights, lenses of glasses, boots, even skin. Covering these surfaces with rough-textured materials or mud will reduce or eliminate the reflection of light. Texturing materials can be applied to smooth paved surfaces to help them blend with the surrounding ground and reduce tonal contrasts.

d. Shadow. The shadow of an object often provides the only clue in determining its identity. Viewed from directly above, water towers, smoke stacks, power line towers, and similar tall structures appear as circles or dots. Their shadows, however, reveal their characteristic outlines, as though viewed from the side, and help to establish their identities. Sometimes it may be more important to disrupt the shadow of an object than it is to conceal the object itself.

e. Position or site. The locations of certain objects with relation to other features can identify many photo images not easily recognized by themselves. Factories or warehouses are usually beside a railroad or railroad siding. Schools may be identified by their adjacent athletic fields. A water tower next to a railroad station and a silo next to a barn would be difficult to distinguish from each other were it not for the nearby railroad tracks or cultivated fields. In creating simulations of disguising military items, it is important to retain a logical relation to other nearby features, in a plausible and convincing site.

f. Size. The size of unknown objects on a photograph as determined from the scale of the photography or a comparison with known objects of known size aids in their identification. Both the relative and the absolute sizes are important. For example, in a built-up area, the smaller buildings are usually dwellings and the larger buildings, commercial or community buildings. Large important structures can be easily identified by their size. The roof of such a structure can be painted, walkways added, and foliage carefully placed to create the illusion of several small insignificant buildings.

g. Movement. Although the factor of movement seldom reveals the identity of an object by itself, it is the most important one for revealing existence. Even though the other factors of recognition have been completely eliminated, an enemy observer will be attracted to the area if movement is not controlled. He may even be concentrating his attention elsewhere but he will not fail to detect movement in another area through his peripheral vision. It should also be remembered movement can be detected by ground-to-ground radar. To reduce the chances of detection, quick or unnecessary movement should be avoided. Move slowly and carefully, following the natural lines of the terrain as much as possible.

h. Sound. Sound has pitch, loudness, and tone, which can be used to identify its nature and origin, and to pinpoint its exact location. Carelessness with regard to sound discipline can reveal the kind and quantity of equipment and even the size of a unit. All tell-tale sounds, even whispering, should be kept to a minimum, especially at night. When sound cannot be avoided, its identity can sometimes be masked by so-called "sound screens", which are stronger sounds created by the firing of machine guns or artillery pieces; the running of tanks, prime movers and tractor engines along a broad front; or by the operation of sound projection stations which imitate various battle sounds.

i. Smell. The factor of smell was relatively ignored for a long time as a means of detection except by close ground observers. Yet the characteristics exhaust from fuel-burning engines, cooking odors, and campfire and tobacco smoke as clues which can linger long enough to lead the enemy directly to your position. The development of chemical and olfactory sensors make is possible to detect traces of such odors no longer discernible by the human nose. The best defense against this factor of recognition is to avoid creating tell-tale odors if possible. Good maintenance of fuel-burning engines, and strict discipline while in bivouac are measures that will reduce the creation of traceable odors.

a. Mission. The most important consideration in the selection of a site for any military use is the mission of the unit. However excellent a site may be from the concealment standpoint, if it in any way inhibits the accomplishment of the mission, it is useless.

b. Size. The site must be of sufficient size to permit proper dispersal for effective operation. Such dispersal is necessary not only for concealment, but also to reduce losses from enemy fire.

c. Terrain patterns. Terrain can be divided into four general types, each of which has a distinctive and characteristic appearance from the air. The site chosen must provide concealment without disturbing or altering the characteristic pattern of the terrain. The four terrain types are: agricultural, urban, wooded, and barren.

a. Tracks. Tracks are especially revealing to the aerial observer. They indicate type, location, strength, and even intentions of a unit. Often a single track across and area of low vegetation is clearly visible. This is especially true in the early morning hours when there is a heavy dew. The gradual turns of wheeled vehicles are distinguishable from the skidding turns of a track laying vehicle. Tracks should follow closely and be parallel to hedges, fences, cultivated fields, and other natural terrain lines in order to remain inconspicuous from the air (fig. 5-4). Tracks should always continue past the position to a logical termination. On short stretches, exposed tracks may be erased by brushing out, or by covering with leaves and debris.

b. Tracks in snowy areas. In snow covered terrain, concealment of tracks is a major problem. Even in light snow, tracks make strong shadow lines visible from great distances. Sharp turns should be avoided because the resulting snow ridges cast even heavier shadows. The same principles stressed throughout this discussion apply to snow covered terrain, with a bit more emphasis on following natural shadow-casting terrain lines. It is also important all vehicles keep to the same tracks. Vehicles leaving the tracks or road may achieve short periods of track concealment by driving directly into or away from the sun, as shadows cast by these tracks will not be apparent until the sun strikes them from an angle. Short lengths of tracks may be obliterated if they are not too deep, by trampling them with snowshoes.

c. Shine. Siting and track discipline do much to conceal a vehicle, but shine can nullify the best site and finest track discipline. Shine is always present when there is light in the sky, sunlight, moonlight, or the light of flares. It is caused by the reflection of light from windshields, windows, mess kits, watch crystals, and other such smooth almost textureless surfaces. Even the lenses of field glasses, when used in direct sunlight, can reflect a bright shine similar to that of a mirror. These danger spots must be concealed by any means. The betraying nature of shine should never be underestimated. Even under heavy overhead cover, shiny objects may be revealed through the smallest of gaps. They should be covered with non-reflecting material such as blankets, tarpaulins, burlap, or even mud.

d. Night discipline. No less important is strict observance of blackout rules. At night, windows, hatches, entrances, and other openings through which light can shine must be covered with shutters, screens, curtains, and other special opaque materials to prevent enemy ground and air observers from noticing the interior illumination. Fires can be lighted only in specially designated and equipped areas. Smoking is forbidden near the enemy, as is the display of lights of any type. Combat and transport vehicles can be allowed to travel only with their lights turned off or obscured. Aerial photographs taken at night by the light of flares or by the use of image intensification equipment can pick up breaches in camouflage discipline, which are more likely to occur at night than in the daylight hours. Consequently the same standard of camouflage discipline must be adhered to by night as by day.

e. Sound discipline. Troops must pay special attention to sound camouflage during night movement and apply all principles of scouting and patrolling. During nighttime river crossings, the noise from the paddles should be muffled. Revealing sounds from tank and truck movement or from engineering work can be muffled by sound screens.

f. Spoil and debris. Spoil and debris must be covered, or placed to blend with the surrounding. Excess dirt from digging fortifications can be dumped in streams or spread inconspicuously along roads. Under no circumstances should any trash or litter be left where it can be seen, even after a unit has vacated an area.

a. Hiding. Hiding is the complete concealment of an object from any form of enemy observation by some type of physical screen. Sod over the mines in a minefield hides the mines; the overhead canopy of trees hides the objects beneath it from aerial observation; a defilade hides objects from ground observation; a net hides objects beneath it; a road screen hides the obstacle behind it. In some cases, the screen itself may be invisible to the enemy. In other instances, while visible to the enemy, a screen conceals the amount and type of activity behind it. Problems of concealment have been made more difficult by the development of electronic surveillance devices. Concealment from visual observations is no longer enough. The detection capability of the enemy must be determined; if it includes remote sensory equipment such as near or far infrared devices or radar devices, appropriate counter measures must be employed.

b. Blending. Blending is the use of natural or artificial materials to reduce or eliminate contrast and make individuals or equipment appear to be part of the background or surrounding terrain. For example, the individual can apply stick face paint to the exposed areas of the skin, can add burlap and foliage to his helmet, and can stain or paint his clothing in a mottled pattern so he will blend into the background. Vehicles and other equipment are pattern painted to alter the identifying angles of their shapes and make them less conspicuous.

c. Disguising. Disguising is the third method of camouflage. It consists of changing the appearance of troops, material, equipment, or installations in order to mislead the enemy as to their true identity. For example, supplies or ammunition can be stacked and covered with hay to resemble the haystacks of the region. The roof and surroundings of a large military building can be altered to create the impression of several small unimportant structures.

d. Simulations. A simulation, sometimes called a "dummy" or "decoy", is a false representation of actual personnel, equipment, or material employed to give the appearance of the real item. Although strictly speaking, simulations are not camouflage measures, they are often associated with camouflage techniques in large-scale deceptive operations. Simulations are openly displayed to draw enemy attention away from the true military targets, which have been concealed by one or more of the camouflage technique discussed above.

a. Siting. After the demands of the military situation and the mission have been met, siting with proper background is the first consideration given to the concealment of a fortification. From the standpoint of ground observation, the emplacement should be sited to avoid creating a silhouette against the sky or against a background of contrasting color. To avoid air observation, the emplacement should be located under trees, bushes, or in dark areas of the terrain.

b. Construction. Before any excavation is started, all natural materials, such as turf, leaves, forest humus, or snow are removed and placed inside to be used later for restoring the natural appearance of the terrain. Concealment while constructing an elaborate fortification is vital.

c. Covers. When a position cannot be sited under natural cover, camouflaged covers are valuable aids in preventing detection. Materials native to the area are preferred, but when using materials (fig. 5-6) over an emplacement they must be replaced before they wilt and change color, leading to detection. Artificial materials may be used effectively, such as those made to simulate tall grass, bushes, stumps, and rocks, whichever the terrain calls for. They are valuable principally against aerial observation. They are light in weight and may be easily pushed out of the way.

d. Machine gun positions. The machinegun receives the close attention of enemy troops and its concealment must be as perfect as possible. Usually, machinegun emplacements are hasty, in which case camouflage means siting to best advantage and then using any materials at hand.

e. Mortars. Mortars should always be sited in defilade. Since a mortar covering a designated target area has a wider choice of position than the other smaller weapons, such defilade can almost always be found and concealment from direct ground observation is fairly easy. Proper siting in shadow and broken ground pattern, making certain there is the necessary overhead clearance for firing, together with intelligent use of natural and artificial materials offer the required mortar concealment from the air.

a. Revealing factors. A badly concealed vehicle can lead to much more than just a lost vehicle; it may mean discovery of a unit, disclosure of an important tactical plan, or complete destruction of an installation. Camouflage of vehicles depends not only on concealing the vehicles themselves, their shine, shadow, and shape, but equally on preventing and concealing their all-revealing tracks. (It must be remembered that enemy ground and aerial observation is drawn quickest by anything that moves, and that nothing can be done to conceal vehicles moving through undergrowth or along exposed routes.)

a. Revealing factors. As is the case with all other impedimenta of warfare, skillful concealment of artillery weapons can add immeasurably to the element of surprise and thence to the defeat of the enemy. Enemy observers are trained to search for certain definite signs which indicate the presence of artillery - imperfectly camouflaged weapon positions, blast areas, litter, paths or wheel tracks, and in the case of a missile site, the excessive earthworking scars in the terrain pattern necessitated by a level firing pad and fueling entrances and exits, and other necessary activities. Even though the weapons themselves are hidden, such signs are dead giveaways of the presence of artillery. These signs may not of themselves indicate the exact nature of the position, but they do attract enemy attention and invite more careful observation.

b. Camouflage measures.

a. Siting. Proper siting can contribute significantly to solving the problem of concealment.

An ideal bivouac area, for example, is a large wooded area containing many existing routes of approach. Such an ideal place is seldom found. Military units should be sited, when possible, to take advantage of terrain features such as shadow, terrain lines, rocky areas, villages, farms and defilades. The individual must be ready to fit himself and his equipment inconspicuously into any type of terrain.

b. Camouflage discipline SOP. Next to siting, the standing operating procedure (SOP) of camouflage is the most important element of the camouflage of bivouacs. The SOP is based on the principle that everyone in the unit understands camouflage discipline. This SOP provides for the following measures:

c. Development of bivouac. There are four critical stages in the development of a bivouac. In the order in which they occur, they are: planning, occupation, maintenance, and evacuation.

d. Planning stage. Frequent bivouacs are characteristic of mobile warfare. In such warfare, there is seldom time or facilities to erect elaborate constructions for concealment. Bivouacs are usually hastily occupied and quickly evacuated. Camouflage measures are hasty in nature, and dependent upon local natural materials. The most important elements in the planning stage of a bivouac are performed by the advance and quartering parties.

e. Occupation stage. The occupation stage is limited to the period during which the unit is moving into the bivouac area. A carefully controlled traffic plan is mandatory during this stage. Guides posted at route junctions should be fully informed of the camouflage plan. One of their duties is to enforce camouflage discipline. Vehicle turn-ins must be taped or wired to prevent widening of corners. Foot troops should follow selected and marked paths through the area.

f. Maintenance stage. The maintenance stage of a bivouac commences when the unit has arrived in the area and terminates when the last element departs. If the occupation stage has been successful from a camouflage standpoint, the maintenance stage is relatively easy. Successful maintenance involves frequent ground inspection of the bivouac area, active patrol measures for camouflage discipline, and, if possible, aerial observation and photography and the correction of defects.

g. Evacuation stage. The camouflage of a bivouac is not terminated when the unit moves out. An evacuated area can be left in such a state of disorder that aerial photographs taken by the enemy will reveal the strength of the unit which occupied it, the kind of equipment carried, and the direction in which it went. It is part of camouflage discipline to leave the area looking undisturbed because friendly advancing troops may want to use the same area. Decoy bivouacs may sometimes be used as part of the tactical plan, during occupation or after departure.

h. Geographic areas

Lesson 5 Practice Exercise
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