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87153: Hatch Act Amendments: Political Activity and the Civil Service
Updated December 24, 1996
CONTENTS
- The Hatch Act Reform Amendments of 1993
- Coverage
- Political Activities
- Political Activity Permitted; Employees Residing in Certain Municipalities
- Candidacy for Partisan Political Office Prohibited
- Political Activities On Duty Prohibited
- Use of Official Influence or Official Information Prohibited
- Solicitation/Contributions
- Penalties
- Title 5 U.S. Code Chapter 33 Amendment
- Title 18 U.S. Code
- Related Statutes and Executive Orders/White House Memorandum
- Political Recommendations
- Supreme Court Decision
- Criminal Violations by Agriculture Department Employees
CONGRESSIONAL HEARINGS, REPORTS, AND DOCUMENTS
Web Sites and Related Key Addresses
Office of Special Counsel (OSC) Home Page; includes Political Activity ("Hatch Act") section, lists permissible and prohibited activities, provides answers to frequently asked questions, and includes information on OSC's enforcement role and on penalties for violations. http://www.access.gpo.gov/osc
Requests for Hatch Act advisory opinions may be made by e-mail to hatchact@osc.gov.
Requests for assistance in connection with allegations of prohibited personnel practices should be directed to the OSC Officer of the Week at Complaints Examining Unit, U.S. Office of Special Counsel, 1730 M Street, N.W., Suite 300, Washington, D.C. 20036-4505 or by telephone at (800) 872-9855 or (202) 653-7188.
For general Hatch Act inquiries, call (800) 85-HATCH or (202) 653-7143.
The Hatch Act Reform Amendments of 1993, P.L. 103-94, enacted on October 6, 1993, establish congressional policy that employees should be encouraged to exercise fully, freely, and without fear of penalty or reprisal, and to the extent not expressly prohibited by law, their right to participate, or to refrain from participating, in the political processes of the nation. P.L. 104-93, Intelligence Authorization Act for FY1996, enacted on January 6, 1996, amends Section 7325 of P.L. 103-94 to allow the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) to extend coverage of regulations on political activity permitted of employees residing in certain municipalities to certain employees previously excluded. The Legislative Branch Appropriations, 1997, P.L. 104-197, enacted on September 16, 1996, includes an amendment to the Hatch Act relating to political recommendations by Members of Congress.
The House Subcommittee on Department Operations, Nutrition, and Foreign Agriculture of the Committee on Agriculture conducted a hearing on September 24, 1996, on criminal violations, including Hatch Act offenses, by Department of Agriculture employees. The United States Attorney for the District of Columbia charged the employees with conspiracy to solicit political contributions. The employees pleaded guilty and were fined. Two were sentenced to time in a halfway house.
The 1939 Hatch Act (53 Stat. 1147-1149), as amended, defines a relationship of neutrality and impartiality for the Civil Service and sought "to prevent pernicious political activities." In 1968, the Commission on Political Activity of Government Personnel expressed the opinion that "the best protection that the government can provide for its personnel is to prohibit those activities that tend to corrode a career system based on merit. This requires strong sanctions against coercion. It also requires some limits on the role of the government employee in politics.... These limits should be clearly and specifically expressed, and... beyond those limits political participation should be permitted as fully as for all other citizens."
The Supreme Court in 1947 (United Public Workers, C.I.O. v. Mitchell, 330 U.S. 75) and in 1973 (United States Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers, AFL-CIO, 413 U.S. 548), upheld the Hatch Act's constitutionality. Bills to amend the Hatch Act were vetoed in 1976 (President Ford) and 1990 (President Bush). Debate centered on whether a politically active bureaucracy would compromise government efficiency; result in increased responsiveness to the public and the Administration or create a large political machine; and adequately protect federal workers' right to be free from political coercion and the rights of the general citizenry to be free from intimidation.
The House Subcommittee on Department Operations, Nutrition, and Foreign Agriculture of the Committee on Agriculture conducted a hearing on September 24, 1996, on criminal violations, including Hatch Act offenses, by Department of Agriculture employees. The United States Attorney for the District of Columbia charged the employees with conspiracy to solicit political contributions. The employees pleaded guilty and were fined. Two were sentenced to time in a halfway house. The issue may continue to be of interest in the 105th Congress.
The Hatch Act Reform Amendments of 1993
President Clinton signed into law the Hatch Act Reform Amendments of 1993 (H.R. 20) as Public Law 103-94 on October 6, 1993. On March 3, 1993, the Federal Employees Political Activities Act of 1993, H.R. 20, passed the House, amended, by a vote of 333- 86. The text of S. 185, The Hatch Act Reform Amendments of 1993, as amended, was substituted for H.R. 20 and H.R. 20, as amended, passed the Senate by a vote of 68 to 31 on July 20, 1993. On September 21, 1993, the House agreed to the Senate amendment to H.R. 20 by a vote of 339 to 85. The law establishes congressional policy that employees should be encouraged to exercise fully, freely, and without fear of penalty or reprisal, and to the extent not expressly prohibited by law, the right to participate or to refrain from participating in the nation's political processes. The provisions of P.L. 103-94 became effective on February 3, 1994.
The law authorized the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) to prescribe regulations to carry out the provisions regarding political activity permitted of employees residing in certain municipalities (5 U.S.C. 7325). OPM, on February 4, 1994, published interim regulations, effective February 3, 1994, in the Federal Register to implement Section 7325 of the law. P.L. 103-94 did not authorize OPM, the Office of Special Counsel (OSC), or any other agency to prescribe any other regulations with regard to Chapter 73, Subchapter III of Title 5, United States Code. Walter Dellinger, Assistant Attorney General, Office of Legal Counsel, U.S. Department of Justice in a memorandum for James A. Kahl, Deputy Special Counsel, OSC, on "whether OPM or the OSC has the authority to promulgate regulations delimiting the scope and nature of impermissible political activities under the Hatch Act Reform Amendments of 1993 ... conclude[d] that OPM possesses the authority to promulgate regulations explicating the Hatch Act as amended." OPM published final regulations, effective August 5, 1996, in the Federal Register to implement the law.
Coverage. Employees or office holders in executive agencies or in positions within the competitive service that are not in executive agencies and U.S. Postal Service and Postal Rate Commission employees are covered by the law. District of Columbia (D.C.) government employees or office holders, other than the Mayor or a member of the City Council or the Recorder of Deeds, are also covered. During House debate prior to House agreement to the Senate amendment to H.R. 20, D.C. Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton stated that the legislation "treats District of Columbia government employees like federal employees under the Hatch Act. This is a total affront to home rule and self-government." Saying that H.R. 20 subjects these employees "to greater limitations on their basic rights of free political expression than their counterparts in other state and local jurisdictions" she stated her intent to "seek to make District employees the equal of employees in other state and local jurisdictions."
The President, Vice President, General Accounting Office employees, and members of the uniformed services are not covered by the law. Regulations covering political activities of GAO employees are published at 4 CFR 7.3. Military personnel are covered by DOD Directive 1344.10, entitled Political Activities by Members of the Armed Forces. The law repeals 42 U.S.C. 9904(e), which provided that employees of any nonprofit private organization receiving assistance under the Community Services Block Grant Program which has responsibility for planning, developing, and coordinating community antipoverty programs were covered by the Hatch Act covering state and local government employees.
Political Activities. The law provides that employees may take an active part in political management or in political campaigns, except as prohibited, and retain the right to vote as they choose and to express their opinion on political subjects and candidates. Exceptions. Employees (except those appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate) of the Federal Election Commission; Federal Bureau of Investigation; Secret Service; Central Intelligence Agency; National Security Council; National Security Agency; Defense Intelligence Agency; Merit Systems Protection Board; Office of Special Counsel; Office of Criminal Investigation of the Internal Revenue Service; Office of Investigative Programs of the U.S. Customs Service; Office of Law Enforcement of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms; or the Criminal Division of the Department of Justice; or members of the career Senior Executive Service, Administrative Law Judges, or contract appeals board members may not take an active part in political management or political campaigns. "Active part in political management or in a political campaign" means those acts of political management or political campaigning that were prohibited for employees of the competitive service before July 19, 1940, by determinations of the Civil Service Commission under rules prescribed by the President. Section 501(k) of P.L. 103-359, enacted October 14, 1994, added the Central Imagery Office to the list of exceptions.
Political Activity Permitted; Employees Residing in Certain Municipalities. (As enacted in P.L. 103-94, this provision did not apply to employees in the agencies and positions listed above under exceptions. With enactment of P.L. 104-93, employees listed above under exceptions are covered by this provision except for employees of the Criminal Division of the Department of Justice.) OPM may prescribe regulations permitting employees to take an active part in political management and political campaigns involving the municipality or other political subdivision in which they reside. Participation may be to the extent OPM considers it to be in their domestic interest, when
- the municipality or political subdivision is in Maryland or Virginia and in the immediate vicinity of the District of Columbia, or is a municipality in which the majority of voters are employed by the United States government; and
- OPM determines that because of special or unusual circumstances which exist in the municipality or political subdivision it is in the domestic interest of the employees and individuals to permit that political participation.
Candidacy for Partisan Political Office Prohibited. The law prohibits employees from running for nomination or as a candidate for election to a partisan political office. "Partisan political office" means any office for which any candidate is nominated or elected as representing a party any of whose candidates for presidential elector received votes in the last preceding election at which presidential electors were selected, but excludes any office or position within a political party or affiliated organization. The Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs report accompanying the legislation states that "Federal employees could run for office within party organizations and affiliated groups such as convention delegate."
Political Activities On Duty Prohibited. The law prohibits employees from engaging in political activity (1) while on duty; (2) in any room or building occupied in the discharge of official duties by an employee or officeholder of the U.S. government or any agency or instrumentality thereof; (3) while wearing a uniform or official insignia identifying their office or position; or (4) using any vehicle owned or leased by the U.S. government or any agency or instrumentality thereof. The Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs report accompanying the legislation states that "politics on the job, including the wearing of political buttons, is prohibited."
Employees described below may engage in political activities on duty if the costs associated with that political activity are not paid for by money from the U.S. Treasury. This provision applies to employees
- the duties and responsibilities of whose positions continue outside normal duty hours and while away from the normal duty post; and
- who are paid from an appropriation for the Executive Office of the President; or who are appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, whose positions are located within the United States, who determine policies to be pursued by the United States in relations with foreign powers or in the nationwide administration of federal laws. (Regulations at 5 CFR 734.502)
U.S. Department of Justice Opinion. OPM asked the Office of Legal Counsel at the U.S. Department of Justice to present its opinion on "whether the amendments to the Hatch Act ... prohibit imposing restraints on the political activities of political appointees beyond those restraints set out in the Act itself." Walter Dellinger, Assistant Attorney General, Office of Legal Counsel, U.S. Department of Justice in a memorandum September 20, 1994) for Lorraine P. Lewis, General Counsel, OPM concluded: We believe that an Administration may impose additional restrictions on its political appointees. In the absence of a clear statement in the law, Congress should not be taken to have intended that an Administration be precluded from controlling the political activities of employees who were appointed on political grounds. Congress has provided for the executive branch to make some political appointments in the civil service ... (although taking action based on an employee's political activities is ordinarily a prohibited personnel practice, the prohibition does not extend to action affecting political appointees). It would be inconsistent with the character of such appointments if the appointees were free to disregard or contradict the political positions of the Administration; we would not assume that Congress intended to make such a fundamental change in the nature of political appointments without having addressed the issues that would be raised by so significant an alteration. Indeed, if the amendments to the Hatch Act were interpreted to prevent an Administration from directing the political activities of even its high-level political appointees, the amendments would raise serious constitutional questions. In particular, we believe that any attempt by Congress to block political control over those appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate would be highly dubious from a constitutional standpoint. The amendments should be interpreted in a manner that avoids these serious constitutional issues. Accordingly, we believe that the Office of Personnel Management's regulations may permit the further restriction of political activities by employees appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, employees appointed by the President, non-career Senior Executive Service members, Schedule C employees (appointed pursuant to 5 C.F.R. 213.3301, 213.3302), and any other employees serving at the pleasure of the President. We understand that one context in which these questions may arise would be the desire of some agencies to require high-level appointees to refrain from partisan political activity. We express no view, of course, about whether further regulation of employees in all of these categories would be appropriate as a policy matter.
OPM Regulations. By regulation, OPM has prescribed that, "no further proscriptions or restrictions may be imposed upon employees covered under this regulation except: (a) Employees who are appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate; (b) Employees who are appointed by the President; (c) Non-career senior executive service members; (d) Schedule C employees, 5 CFR 213.3301, 213.3302; and (e) Any other employees who serve at the pleasure of the President." (5 CFR 734.104)
Use of Official Influence or Official Information Prohibited. The law prohibits employees from using their official authority or influence to interfere with or affect the result of an election. The Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs report accompanying the legislation states that "the prohibition on coercion includes pressuring employees to attend political functions."
Solicitation/Contributions. Under the law, employees may not knowingly solicit, accept, or receive a political contribution from any person, unless that person is a member of the same federal labor organization or a federal employee organization that, as of the enactment date of this Act, had a multicandidate political committee; not a subordinate employee; and the solicitation is for a contribution to that federal labor organization's or federal employee organization's multicandidate political committee. Furthermore, employees may not knowingly solicit or discourage the participation in any political activity of any person who has an application for any compensation, grant, contract, ruling, license, permit, or certificate pending before the employing office of the employee; or is the subject of, or a participant in, an ongoing audit, investigation, or enforcement action being carried out by that office. "Political contribution" means any gift, subscription, loan, advance, or deposit of money or anything of value, made for any political purpose. The term includes any contract, promise, or agreement, express or implied, whether or not legally enforceable, to make a contribution for any political purpose; any payment by any person, other than a candidate or a political party or affiliated organization, of compensation for the personal services (personal services includes paid and unpaid services) of another person that are rendered to any candidate or political party or affiliated organization without charge for any political purpose; and the provision of personal services for any political purpose. By interim regulation, OPM has prescribed that "individualized uncompensated volunteer services are not a "thing of value" and are excluded from the definition of "political contribution" (59 FR 48766). The law prohibits Federal Election Commission employees (except those appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate) from requesting or receiving from, or giving to, an employee, a Member of Congress, or an officer of a uniformed service a political contribution.
Penalties. The law provides that, if the Special Counsel receives an allegation concerning any matter relating to prohibited political activities, withholding of information, political intrusion into personnel decisionmaking, and discrimination, the Special Counsel can investigate and seek corrective action under 5 U.S.C. 1214 and disciplinary action under 5 U.S.C. 1215 in the same way as if a prohibited personnel practice were involved. An employee or individual who violates Section 7323 or 7324, relating to prohibitions on the use of official influence or official information and solicitation, shall be removed from his or her position, and funds appropriated for the position from which removed thereafter may not be used to pay the employee or individual. However, if the Merit System Protection Board finds by unanimous vote that the violation does not warrant removal, a penalty of not less than 30 days' suspension without pay shall be imposed by direction of the Board.
The Office of Special Counsel (OSC) investigates and prosecutes violations of the Hatch Act and renders advisory opinions on the law. The Civil Service Commission had primary responsibility to enforce the Hatch Act statute prior to 1979. With enactment of the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978, the Office of Special Counsel (OSC) was created as an independent office of the Merit Systems Protection Board. In 1989 the OSC was established as an independent agency under the Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989 (P.L. 101-12). Hatch Act jurisdiction is discussed in the interim regulations at 5 CFR 734.102.
The Office of Special Counsel (OSC) Home Page includes a featured section entitled Political Activity ("Hatch Act"). Permissible and prohibited activities are listed and answers to frequently asked questions are provided. Information on the OSC's enforcement role and on penalties for violations is also included. The OSC web site address is http://www.access.gpo.gov/osc. Requests for Hatch Act advisory opinions may be made by e-mail to hatchact@osc.gov. Requests for assistance in connection with allegations of prohibited personnel practices should be directed to the OSC Officer of the Week at Complaints Examining Unit, U.S. Office of Special Counsel, 1730 M Street, N.W., Suite 300, Washington, D.C. 20036-4505 or by telephone at (800) 872-9855 or (202) 653-7188. For general Hatch Act inquiries, call (800) 85-HATCH or (202) 653-7143.
Title 5 U.S. Code Chapter 33 Amendment. The law amends 5 U.S.C. 3302(2) that currently authorizes the President to prescribe rules providing necessary exceptions from various provisions of Title 5, United States Code by deleting references to Section 7321 (relating to political contributions and services) and Section 7322 (relating to the prohibition on political use of authority or influence) of Subchapter III, Chapter 73 of Title 5, United States Code.
Title 18 U.S. Code. P.L. 103-94 amends sections of Title 18, United States Code relating to the solicitation of and making of political contributions. Section 602 is amended to prohibit a candidate for Congress; a Senator, Representative, Delegate, or Resident Commissioner; a federal employee or officeholder; or a person receiving any salary or compensation for services from monies from the U.S. Treasury from knowingly soliciting any contribution within the meaning of section 301(8) of the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 from any other such officer, employee, or person. Any person who violates this section will be fined under the 18 U.S. Code provisions or imprisoned not more than 3 years, or both. Any activity of employees covered by the Hatch Act is excluded unless that activity is prohibited under 5 U.S.C. 7323 or 7324, relating to prohibitions on the use of official influence or official information and solicitation. Section 603 is amended to exclude any activity of employees covered by the Hatch Act from the prohibition in subsection (a) of Section 603 unless that activity is prohibited under 5 U.S.C. 7323 or 7324. The law also amends Chapter 29 of Title 18, U.S. Code to add a new section covering coercion of political activity. This section provides that it is unlawful for any person to, or attempt to, intimidate, threaten, command, or coerce any employee to engage in, or not to engage in, any political activity. Such political activity includes, but is not limited to, voting or refusing to vote for any candidate or measure in any election, making or refusing to make any political contribution, or working or refusing to work on behalf of any candidate. Any person who violates this section will be fined not more than $5,000 or imprisoned not more than three years, or both.
Related Statutes and Executive Orders/White House Memorandum. The regulations list statutes and executive orders that may apply to the political activities (59 FR 48769). Tables 1 and 2 list permissible and prohibited activities. The regulations provide examples of various activities and define terms at 5 CFR 734.101. Qualification requirements for multicandidate political committees of federal labor organizations and federal employee organizations are at 5 CFR 734.103. P.L. 103-94 includes provisions on garnishment of federal employees' pay. (See "Commercial Garnishment of Federal Employees' Pay," Federal Register, v. 59, March 29, 1994, pp. 14541-14545.) White House Counsel Abner J. Mikva, in a May 2, 1995 memorandum for the heads of all agencies and departments, stated that civilian executive branch employees may make a political contribution to the reelection campaign committee of an incumbent President under 18 U.S.C. 603, as amended. The memorandum restated the limitations in 5 U.S.C. 7323 and 7324 on soliciting, accepting, or receiving political contributions and on political activity while on duty. Prior to enactment of the Hatch Act Reform Amendments, 18 U.S.C. 603 had been interpreted as prohibiting contributions to an incumbent President. Previous White House Counsels C. Boyden Gray and Fred J. Fielding had issued memorandums on the 18 U.S.C. 603 prohibition.
P.L. 104-93, H.R. 1655
Intelligence Authorization Act for FY1996. Reported from Select Committee on Intelligence , amended, June 14, 1995 (H.Rept. 104-138, Part I). Reported from Government Reform and Oversight Committee July 19, 1995 (H.Rept. 104-138, Part II). Passed House, amended, September 13, 1995. Passed Senate with text of S. 922 inserted September 29, 1995. House and Senate agreed to conference report December 21, 1995 (H.Rept. 104-427). Signed into law January 6, 1996.
P.L. 104-197, H.R. 3754
Legislative Branch Appropriations, FY1997. Reported to Senate, amended (S.Rept. 104-323), by Committee on Appropriations July 19, 1996. Passed Senate (Roll No. 254), 93 to 6, on July 30, 1996. House agreed to conference report (H.Rept. 104-733), 397 to 22 (Roll No. 386), on August 1, 1996. Senate agreed to conference report by voice vote on September 3, 1996. Signed into law September 16, 1996.
CONGRESSIONAL HEARINGS, REPORTS, AND DOCUMENTS
U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Agriculture. Subcommittee on Department Operations, Nutrition, and Foreign Agriculture. Investigation of the Violation of the Hatch Act and Other Related Laws. Hearings, 104th Congress, 2nd session. September 5, 12, 24, 1996. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1996. H. Hearing 104-42.
-----Committee on Post Office and Civil Service. Federal Employees Political Activities Act of 1993. Report to Accompany H.R. 20. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1993. (103rd Congress, 1st session. H.Rept. 103-16.)
U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Appropriations. Legislative Branch Appropriations, 1997. Report to Accompany H.R. 3754. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1996. (104th Congress, 2nd session. S.Rept. 104-323.)
-----Committee on Governmental Affairs. Hatch Act Reform Amendments of 1993. Hearings on S. 185, 103rd Congress, 1st session. April 27 and 30, 1993. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1993. S. Hearing 103-771.
-----Hatch Act Reform Amendments of 1993. Report to accompany S. 185. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1993. (103rd Congress, 1st session. S.Rept. 103- 57.)
-----Recommendations by Members of Congress Relating to Federal Employment. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1996. (104th Congress, 2nd session. Senate. Hearing 104-483.)
-----Committee on Conference. Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996. Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 1655. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1995. (104th Congress, 1st session. H.Rept. 104-427.)
Bolton, John R. The Hatch Act: A Civil Libertarian Defense. Washington, American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1976.2
"Federal Employees' Political Activities: Pros and Cons." Congressional Digest, v. 72, August 1993: whole issue (pp. 193-224).
Moffitt, Robert E. Gutting the Hatch Act: Congress' Plan to Re-politicize the Civil Service. Washington, Heritage Foundation, 1993. 14 p.
"Political Activities of Federal Employees." Federal Register, v. 59, September 23, 1994. pp. 48765-48777.
"Political Activities of Federal Employees." Federal Register, v. 61, July 5, 1996. pp. 35088- 35102.
Rosenbloom, David H. Federal Service and the Constitution: Development of the Public Employee Relationship. Ithaca, Cornell University press, 1971. 267 p.
U.S. Commission on Political Activity of Government Personnel. Findings and Recommendations (v. 1), Research (v. 2), Hearings (v. 3). Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1968. 1053 p.
U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Agriculture. Subcommittee on Department Operations, Nutrition, and Foreign Agriculture. Investigative Report: Violation of the Hatch Act and Related Laws at the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, September 24, 1996, 20 p.
U.S. Department of Justice. Office of Legal Counsel. Office of the Assistant Attorney General. Memorandum for James A. Kahl Deputy Special Counsel, Office of Special Counsel from Walter Dellinger, Assistant Attorney General, Re: Allocation of Responsibility for Issuing Revised Hatch Act Regulations. [Washington] February 2, 1994. 5 p.
-----Memorandum for Lorraine P. Lewis, Esq. General Counsel, Office of Personnel Management from Walter Dellinger, Assistant Attorney General. [Washington] September 20, 1994. 2 p.
U.S. Office of Special Counsel. Political Activity and the Federal Employee. Washington, U.S. Office of Special Counsel, 1992. 12 p.
U.S. The White House. Memorandum for the heads of all agencies and departments from Abner J. Mikva, Counsel to the President. Hatch Act Reform Amendment to 18 U.S.C. 603. Washington, May 2, 1995, 1 p.
Vaughn, Robert G. "Restrictions on the Political Activities of Public Employees: The Hatch Act and Beyond." George Washington Law Review, v. 44, May 1976: 516-553.
CRS Reports
CRS Report 96-184. Campaign Activities by Congressional Employees, by Jack Maskell. 30 p.
CRS Report 89-280. Legal and Constitutional Framework of "Hatch Act" Restrictions on Political Activities of Federal Employees, by Jack H. Maskell. 13 p.
CRS Report 93-235. Political Activities: 103rd Congress Amendments to the Hatch Act, by Barbara L. Schwemle. 43 p.
CRS Report 94-275. Political Activities: Regulations to Implement the Hatch Act Reform Amendments of 1993, by Barbara L. Schwemle. 13 p.
CRS Report 96-913. Recommendations by Members of Congress on Behalf of Applicants for Federal Employment, by Jack H. Maskell. 5 p.
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