EMPLOYMENT OF NAVAL EXPEDITIONARY FORCES
Naval expeditionary forces are task-organized, forward-deployed teams prepared to execute a broad range of options initiated from the sea. In most contingencies, naval forces complement the capabilities and resources of the Army, Air Force, and, possibly, forces of other nations. The critical operational capabilities naval expeditionary forces can provide include:
- Command, control, and surveillance.
- Battlespace dominance.
- Power projection.
- Force sustainment.
Command, Control, and Surveillance
This capability encompasses the gathering, processing, and distribution of information vital to the conduct of military planning and operations. Intelligence is central to the decision-making process. Intelligence identifies key enemy information vulnerabilities and can allow the commander to focus his resources against the enemy center of gravity.
Battlespace Dominance
Modern battlespace is multidimensional. Navy and Marine Corps operations encompass air, surface, subsurface, land, space, and time. Dominance of these dimensions is an important factor in protecting the force and enabling it to effectively project power. Multiple zones of superiority are established to protect the force and enable it to fully exploit its combat effectiveness. The zones are areas in which superiority over anything hostile that enters or passes through them is maintained for the entire operation. Superiority is achieved by using all of the following:
- Detecting.
- Identifying.
- Targeting.
- Neutralizing.
Naval commanders extend the zones of superiority ashore to protect friendly forces. By doing so, they provide an environment for the forces to accomplish their missions and establish their own defensive zones.
Power Projection
The ability to project overwhelming power from the sea is the hallmark of the naval expeditionary force. It gives the force the ability to--
- Influence events.
- Deter potential aggressors.
- Promote regional stability.
- Provide a means of collective security.
The naval expeditionary force has the capacity to rapidly develop sustained and lethal power at the time and location of our choosing. They provide the operational depth of naval power projection independently or as part of a joint or multinational operation by using the following:
- Carrier-based strike aircraft.
- MAGTFs.
- Long-range, sea-launched cruise missiles.
- Special warfare forces.
- Naval surface fire support.
- C2W.
- Maritime pre-positioning.
Force Sustainment
Sustained naval and joint operations are made possible by a logistic support system composed of--
- Fleet-based sustainment assets.
- Strategic sustainment assets.
AMPHIBIOUS TARGETING
The following is a brief description of the amphibious targeting process reprinted from FMFM l-7/NWP 22-2 (Rev. C).
Targeting
Targeting is defined as the process of selecting targets and matching the appropriate response to them, taking into account operational requirement and capabilities. The purpose of the targeting process is to indentify potential targets, determine their potential significance and the level of damage necessary to achieve desired effects on the target, and to assign the target to the appropriate supporting arms agency. The targeting process can be broken down into a targeting sequence as follows:
- 1. Decide
- 2. Detect
- 3. Deliver
- 4. Assess
Detailed explanations of each element of the targeting sequence are available in Chapter 4 of FMFM 6-18, Techniques and Procedures for Fire Support Coordination. The targeting sequence is divided between the target intelligence officers (amphibious task force (ATF), landing force (LF), and air), the landing force target information officer, and the supporting arms coordinator (SAC), who makes the decision to attack.
The Target List
The target list is a listing of targets which is initially maintained and promulgated by the senior echelon of command. It contains those targets which are to be engaged by supporting arms and those targets on which firing restrictions have been placed. It is not a list of targets which may be maintained by any echelon as confirmed suspect, or possible targets of informational and planning purposes; nor is it a vehicle for dissemination of intelligence in general. Commander amphibious task force (CATF) and commander landing force (CLF) will establish procedures for passing control of the ATF target list from CATF to CLF as the LF phases ashore and CLF assumes control of the supporting arms. Except for those cases in which the amphibious objective area (AOA) is to be disestablished, CATF retains overall responsibility for the target list and supporting arms but relies on CLF to discharge those responsibilities.
Selection of Targets
Prior to arrival in the objective area, the acquisition of targets and the collection of target information will be largely dependent on the intelligence collection activities of higher headquarters, as driven by ATF requests for information. The arrival of operating forces in the objective area may induce activity by previously unidentified targets. These targets should be classified and prioritized and assigned a target list part number. Information concerning new targets requires rapid dissemination through target bulletins (TARBULS). In selecting targets to be included on the target list, several factors must be considered.
Permanence
Since the list will usually prepared several weeks in advance, there must be reasonable assurance that the targets listed are not of a transitory type. This does not restrict the advance force from engaging valuable targets of such nature.
Nature of the Target
The nature of the target has an important influence on the decision as to whether or not it is included on the target list. Some types of targets, such as obstacles and minefields, require exorbitant expenditure of ammunition with generally inconclusive results. In addition, neutralization missions by the advance force should be limited to areas of known and important enemy activity which have a direct effect on their operations. Neutralization of suspected activity of small troop concentrations is unprofitable and will usually have to be repeated during the assault when troops can exploit the effect of neutralization fire.
Location of Targets
Only accurately located targets should be selected for inclusion on the target list. If the location of a potential target is not precise, target acquisition efforts should be directed on a target unless its posture is such that it poses no threat to the LF and thus needs not be included on the target list.
Requests of Subordinate Elements
The requests of subordinate elements of the ATF must be considered. The time or means available may be insufficient to attack all targets requested and may result in the omission of low priority targets.
Responsibilities
The CATF is responsible for the preparation and promulgation of the target list. The Joint Intelligence Center (JIC) is responsible for collecting all available target data (target information and intelligence). The JIC provides target data to the SAC, who is responsible for preparing the target list. The CLF and the tactical air officer (TAO) assist the SAC in preparation of the target list by providing lists of targets desired to be destroyed or neutralized. The SAC assigns classification and priorities. The target list is approved by the CATF and is disseminated in the Operations Annex to the Amphibious Task Force OPORD. The target list is to be published prior to the OPORD, it may be published as Appendix 4 to Annex B (Intelligence) of the ATF OPORD, or it may be published in the JINTACCS/JRS TARBUL message format in accordance with NWP 10-1-13 (Supp. 2). If published in the TARBUL format, it will be specifically identified as "ATF Target List" or "Notional ATF Target List" in free text or amplification sets at the beginning of the message.
As additional target data becomes available, it is passed to the LF elements by the target information officer (TIO). If the senior echelon of command desires a newly discovered potential target attacked, such may be ordered by including the target in the next TARBUL (for fixed or semifixed targets) or by issuing an order to attack the target as soon as possible (for a mobile target). All echelons of command within ATF are responsible for ensuring that all pertinent target information which is received by them but is not included in the original target list or incorporated in TARBULS is promptly forwarded to the commander responsible for the target list utilizing the JINTACCS/JRS TGTINFOREP format. Where use of this format would result in excessive delays, or where the new information represents a significant threat to ATF or LF elements, the information will be passed via the most expedition means with appropriately formatted reports submitted at the earliest opportunity.
If subordinate commanders prepare a listing of targets of particular concern to their operations, care must be exercised to distinguish this listing of targets from the target list prepared by the CATF.
Format
The target list is subdivided into parts. This subdivision permits the grouping of targets according to the general time of attack and the desired effect.
Parts of the Target List
Each part lists targets for attack during the operational phase designated:
Part I--Targets designated for destruction during supporting or pre-assault operations.
Part II--Targets designated for neutralization during supporting or pre-assault operations.
Part III--Targets designated for harassment or interdiction during supporting or pre-assault operation.
Part IV--Targets designated for destruction by the ATF.
Part V--Targets designated for neutralization by the ATF.
Part VI --Targets designated for harassment or interdiction by the ATF.
Part VII--Restricted targets to be attacked only on order of the CATF or CLF, as appropriate.
After D-Day the use of target list parts is discontinued. Targets added to the target list on D-Day and thereafter, and targets remaining on the list (those which have not been destroyed, overrun, or deleted for other reasons) can be consolidated without regard to parts. Some other system could be substituted if desired.
DETAILED DATA AND ENTRIES
The specific information included in the target list will be as required for the JINTACC/JRS TARBUL format as described in NWP 10-1-13 (Supp. 3), with the additional element of target elevation.
Target Numbers
Target numbers are assigned by the headquarters which first identifies the potential target. If a potential target is designated for attack by the headquarters controlling the target list, it will retain the target number assigned by the headquarters which first identified the potential target.
Each target, whether area or point, is assigned a target number. Each target number may be assigned to one target only. Any other target, even though it is in the same approximate location, must be given another number.
Grid Coordinates
The military grid reference system is used in giving the coordinates of a target. Locations are shown on maps and charts printed with either the universal transverse Mercator or universal polar stereographic grid system. These maps and charts are used for joint planning and operations. For operations within very large amphibious objective areas, targets located beyond the range of naval gunfire and artillery fire will be shown on aeronautical charts of 1:1,000,000 and larger scale locations will be given in geographic coordinates.
Description
The description of the target will be brief. Dimension of installations and calibers of guns, when known, must be included.
Altitude
The altitude of the target is given in the same units of measure and the contour interval specified on the map from which the target location was determined.
Target Classification
Targets are classification according to the effect they can impose during phases of the operation of the or to the degree of restriction imposed upon attack. Target classification when employed with target priority serves to determine the sequence of attack and the effect allocated to the attack.
Class A
Installations that threaten ships, aircraft, minesweeping, and SEAL operations.
Class B
Installations that threaten assault forces in the ship-to-shore movement and assault of the beach.
Class C
Installations that threaten or oppose LF operations after landing or affect the ability of the enemy to continue resistance.
Class D
Installations that will not be fired on prior to D-Day.
Class E
Installations that must not be destroyed (unless specific orders for such destruction are issued by the CATF) either because of probable future use by own forces of for humanitarian reasons. These installations may be neutralized harassed, or interdicted if they do not appear on Part VII of the target list. They may not be included on Parts I and IV of the target list.
Target Priority
Priority is assigned each target after analysis. It should be noted that within a single classification, priorities will differ. For example, although both a search radar and a gun emplacement may fall in Class A, it is highly probable that the search radar would be the greater initial threat and would therefore carry a higher priority.
The general policy regarding the priority of targets to be attacked by the NGF and by air is announced by CATF. CLF establishes priorities among those targets of concern to the LF.
Priority I
Targets capable of preventing the execution of the plan of action of the ATF or its elements.
Priority II
Targets capable of immediate serious interference with the plan of action of the ATF or its elements.
Priority III
Targets capable of ultimate serious interference with the plan of action of the ATF or its elements.
Priority IV
Targets capable of limited interference with the plan of action of the ATF or its elements.
Priorities, when considered with classification, indicate a general sequence of attack and amount of effort to be allocated to the attack of a particular target.
Elements of the ATF will recommend both a target classification and a target priority when nominating targets to be included on the target list. Obviously, a target which is a Priority I target to an element of the ATF may be Priority II, III, or IV target to the ATF as a whole. General priorities for the attack of targets of opportunity, when a choice is presented should be announced for naval gunfire and air.
Target List Maintenance
The target list may be compiled from target card files or automated data processing systems and will be transferred, physically or electronically, to the responsible commander each time responsibility is transferred.
Target Information Included
The target file is maintained to keep target intelligence and/or information in an orderly manner and to facilitate preparation of the target list and target bulletins.
The target files may contain many targets which, because they are not susceptible to artillery, air attack, and naval gunfire (NGF), or because attack on them would not be profitable, are not published on the target list. Many targets may be based on information only - not on target intelligence - and subsequently, placed in the inactive file. Other targets listed in the files are those from the enemy situation overlay, which is maintained in the SACC. The overlay may show many targets that will not appear on the target list, but any target on the overlay must be covered by information in the target files.
Target Bulletins
The commander responsible for maintaining the target list keeps other interested commanders informed of all changes to the list by means of information messages designated as target bulletins.
Further information can be found in NWP 22-2/FMFM 1-7.
COMMAND AND CONTROL
The NAVFOR commander exercises operational authority through the commanders of the numbered fleets and/or naval expeditionary task forces directly subordinate to the NAVFOR of the JFC. The officer in command is designated as the OTC. He may also be the naval expedition task force commander. He has primary responsibility for execution of the mission of the force. The Navy employs the composite warfare commander (CWC) concept as the doctrinal keystone for operational and tactical C2 systems.
The CWC concept enables the OTC of a naval force to lead his forces in defensive combat operations against air, surface, and subsurface threats. At the same time, the concept allows the force to concentrate on the primary mission of offense. Subordinate warfare commanders are responsible to the CWC for the conduct of the tactical battle. The subordinate warfare commanders normally include the following:
- AAWC.
- ASUWC.
- ASWC.
- Strike warfare commander (SWC).
- C2WC.
All warfare commanders are responsible for collecting, evaluating and disseminating tactical information. They conduct planning and coordination with other warfare commanders. When authorized by the CWC, they control assigned resources and autonomously initiate action. Key personnel with regards to targeting are the SWC and the air resources element coordinator.
Responsibilities of the Strike Warfare Commander
The SWC coordinates the strike capabilities of the force with respect to air and naval cruise missile assets.
Normally the commander of the carrier air wing is appointed the SWC. The commanding officer of the carrier is usually the AREC. In multicarrier battle groups, one of the battle group commanders will be the SWC. Close coordination is required between the SWC and the AREC to ensure efficient use of available assets.
The SWC appoints a strike planning team, headed by the mission commander, for each mission assigned to the carrier air wing. The strike planning cell will do the detailed mission planning needed to accomplish the strike. The strike planning cell will do all coordination needed in the carrier air wing.
Coordination outside of the wing is done by the strike operations section of the AREC's (carrier commander's) staff.
The SWC also coordinates with the following individuals and agencies:
- ASUWC.
- Submarine operations coordinating agency (SOCA).
- Force-over-the-horizon coordinator (FOTC).
The FOTC maintains the locations of enemy naval forces, for long-range war-at-sea strikes against them. The SOCA will also be involved in submarine-launched cruise missile strikes against land targets. Other service components tasked to participate in these operations will coordinate through the SWC. Air Force and Marine Corps aircraft wings doing detailed coordination of individual missions will do the bulk of the Coordination with the SWC.
Responsibilities of the Air Resource Element Coordinator
The AREC, normally the carrier commanding officer, is a resource manager and an air warfare planner and coordinator. He is also the air advisor to the OTC or CWC. He also aids the AAWC in the airspace control function. The AREC must be aware of the aircraft needs of the battle group or force. He must ensure that the aircraft are used effectively. He must also keep apprised of aircraft availability, maintenance readiness, configuration, and weapons load out. The AREC must ensure that the OTC or CWC, warfare commanders, and supporting coordinate are fully apprised of carrier air operations and aircraft availability and assignment. The AREC assembles all requests for air support from the other warfare commanders and, with the strike operations officer, produces the daily air plan. The plan allocates aircraft to the various warfare commanders. In a multicarrier battle force, each carrier will generate its own daily air plan. The OTC or CWC issues a coordinated air tasking message to provide overall guidance for preparing the daily air plan for each carrier.
Under certain circumstances, the AREC may exercise tactical control of particular aircraft, for example, tanker aircraft. However, his primary duties are--
- Allocating carrier aircraft assets.
- Executing the daily air plan.
- Transferring control to the warfare commander or requesting air services and informing the warfare commanders of the status of these assets.
- Reporting results achieved by the air assets and the information gained from their sensors.
The AREC is responsible to ensure that all aircrews are properly briefed and debriefed before and after all missions. The OTC or CWC gives the AREC priorities when requisitions for air assets exceed available resources. The AREC and his staff will be the primary point of contact for the JFACC and his staff on matters pertaining to air operations and planning.
AMPHIBIOUS TACTICAL AIR CONTROL SYSTEM
In an amphibious operation, a single coordinated tactical air control system is developed which is capable of controlling and coordinating all air operations in an area of responsibility. The amphibious tactical air control system (ATACS) is the organization equipped for planning, directing, and controlling tactical air operations in the area. The ATACS also coordinates air operations with other services. ATACS consists of the Navy tactical air control system (NTACS) (the afloat system), and the Marine air command and control system (MACCS) (the ashore system). The CATF is responsible for the ATACS organization and its employment. NTACS is used by the TAO to coordinate, integrate, and regulate all aircraft supporting the amphibious task force (ATF) before passing control ashore. As the amphibious operation develops, responsibility for control and coordination may be passed, in increments, to the commander, landing force (CLF). Finally, all responsibility for controlling and coordinating air operations is vested in the CLF.
NAVY TACTICAL AIR CONTROL SYSTEM
The NTACS is comprised of the TACC (afloat), the TADC, and the helicopter direction center (HDC).
Tactical Air Control Center
The Navy TACC, (afloat) is the principal air operations installation afloat. From the TACC all aircraft and air warning functions of tactical air operations are controlled. It is generally collocated with the SACC aboard the CATF flagship. The Navy TACC controls air support and antiair warfare forces in the AOA until control of the operations is passed to the CLF. If the need arises for another air control agency in the battle area, a TADC is created as a backup. It is assigned specific AORs in the battle area. The TAO is responsible for the overall operation of the Navy TACC. The Navy TACC is functionally organized into the following five sections:
- ATCS.
- ASCS.
- HCS.
- Antiair warfare section (AAWS).
- PSS.
Tactical Air Direction Center (TADC)
The TADC is an air operations installation under the overall control of the Navy TACC. The TADC directs aircraft and air warning functions of tactical air operations in an area of responsibility.
Helicopter Direction Center (HDC)
The HDC is an air operations installation from which control and direction of helicopter operations are exercised. It is under the overall control of the Navy TACC, TADC, or DASC ashore, as appropriate.
SUPPORTING ARMS COORDINATION CENTER
The SACC is located aboard an amphibious command ship equipped with centralized communications. This allows the SACC to coordinate fire support matters with artillery, air, and naval gunfire. SACC is the naval counterpart to the FFCC of the landing force. The Navy TACC and the SACC are separate organizations. However, they work closely in the planning controlling, and coordinating offensive air and assault support.
The Navy TACC supports the SACC by informing the SACC of air operations. The SACC supports the Navy TACC by exercising the responsibility for overall coordination of supporting fires. The interface between the Navy TACC and the SACC is provided by the air support controller. The SACC operates under the supervision of the SAC. The SAC may form the ATF staff or may be the LF force fires coordinator. The SACC includes the following:
- Naval gunfire section.
- Air support section.
- Target information center (TIC).
The naval gunfire section is manned by members of the ATF staff. It controls positioning and assignment of naval fire surface support ships on behalf of the CATF.
The air support section is manned by members of the Navy TACC. It controls supporting aircraft or transfers control to terminal air controlled ashore.
The TIC is responsible for managing target information and coordinates target intelligence with the JIC.
Members of the landing force FFCC represent the CLF in the SACC performing advisory and liaison duties. The LF force fires coordinator may also serve as the SAC. Control of air and naval gunfire is initially with the CATF. The CLF controls artillery through the GCE commander. As an amphibious operation progresses, landing force coordination agencies are established and become operational ashore. Responsibility for control and coordination of supporting arms is passed ashore incrementally. Air control is normally phased ashore as MACCS facilities become functional. After responsibility for coordination of supporting arms is passed ashore, the SACC acts as a backup. The personnel in the SACC continue to monitor radio nets and maintain status boards in the event the SACC must reassume control.
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