Photon
Beginning in 1985 the USSR/CIS conducted annual unmanned space missions dedicated to materials science research. The Photon spacecraft used for these flights is a derivative of the 1960's era Vostok/Voskhod manned spacecraft and the Zenit military reconnaissance satellites and is very similar to the currently operational Bion and Resurs-F satellites. Prototype Photon satellites were launched during 1985-1987 as Kosmos 1645, Kosmos 1744, and Kosmos 1841. Since 1988, the spacecraft have been officially designated as Photon.
The 6,200-kg spacecraft is 6.2 m in length with a maximum diameter of 2.5 m and is divided into three major sections: The service/retro module, the payload capsule, and an equipment block. The 2.3 m diameter recoverable capsule can handle a payload of up to 700 kg and a volume of 4.7 m3. Electrical power is supplied entirely by storage batteries with 400 W average per day allocated to the payload (up to 700 W for 90 minutes each day). Mission durations for the eight Photon flights to the end of 1992 were 13-16 days (References 792-795).
To minimize perturbation forces, thereby maximizing microgravity conditions (as lowas 105 g), Photon spacecraft are placed in a mildly eccentric orbit at 62.8 degrees inclination and are not maneuvered during the mission. The initial orbits for Photon 4 (4-20 October 1991) and Photon 5 (8-24 October 1992) were 215 km by 397 km and 221 km by 359 km, respectively. Prior to 1991 the annual Photon missions had always been launched in April or May. Launches are performed by the Soyuz booster from Plesetsk, and recoveries are made in Kazakhstan in the primary manned recovery region northeast of the Baikonur Cosmodrome.
The year 1993 marked the first time that a Photon mission was not undertaken in the course of the eight-year program. However, in 1994 Photon 6 was launched into an orbit of 221 km by 364 km on 14 June. In addition to Russian materials science experiments, Photon 6 carried out the French Gezon experiment using the Russian Zona-4M electric furnace. (Photon spacecraft have also flown the Zona 1, Zona 4, Splav 2, and Konstanta 2 electric furnaces as well as the Kashtan electrophoresis unit.) Photon 6, which also carried the European Biopan life sciences experiments, was successfully recovered on the 15th day (Reference 788). Two more Photon missions were scheduled for 1995, while a 1996 Photon spacecraft will carry an experimental German reentry capsule named MIRKA. The French firm Carra is developing a new interface module for Photon called Spacepack, which will facilitate the integration of foreign microgravity experiments on Russian spacecraft like Photon (References 789, 796-797).
SPACE MANUFACTURING
FOTON
1981-1987
Professor Konstantin Feoktistov, the veteran cosmonaut, in a New Year's interview in 1984 stated that:
Thanks to the long-duration missions of the Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 stations we can now definitely say that in orbit it is expedient to organize a whole range of production facili ties, for example, to obtain certain semiconductor materials, medicines and so forth. . . . Workshops in weightless conditions are no longer a fantasy. ... It is now known precisely which kinds of materials and alloys it is expedient to make in orbit. 155
Details of materials processing and other materials and medical/ biological experiments have been given in chapters 2 and 3 on ex periments on the Salyut 7 and Mir orbital stations in part 1 of this review and will not be repeated here. This section will confine itself to similar work carried out with automatic satellites of the Cosmos series. This new development in the construction of orbital production complexes began in 1985 with the launch of Cosmos 1645 which carried an automatic technical laboratory and intro duced a new word, "materiology" into the vocabulary. 156 Tests were conducted with the Splav-2 and Zona apparatus, designed to obtain semiconductor materials by different methods. 157
Since then, similar flights have come at a rate of one per year. The launch announcement for Cosmos 1744, in 1986, noted that its purpose was "to continue research in materials study." 158
The launch announcement for Cosmos 1841 in 1987 commented that it carried apparatus for continuing work started on Cosmos 1645 and 1744. It continued:
The 14-day flight schedule provides for the carrying out of experiments in obtaining semiconductor materials with improved properties and particularly pure biological preparations in conditions of microgravitation. After the schedule of research has been completed, the test samples ob tained on the satellite will be delivered to Earth. 159
Further details of the payload of Cosmos 1841 were revealed fol lowing its recovery. 160 After stating that "in zero-gravity condi tions the admixtures can be withdrawn literally by the molecule to produce superpure substances" the report went on to say:
Medicines for treating the immune system are very im portant. One such preparation, thymosin, can be produced from the thymus gland in a laboratory but with great losses and some impurities.
Specialists have long set their eyes on space laboratories. ... It [Cosmos 1841] returned to Earth at 0720 GMT on May 8. Less than eight hours later the various prepara tions from the satellite were at the Institute of Biomedical Technology in Moscow. They were produced in the Kash- tan automatic unit, which experimented with thymus hormone purification. Alpha-1-Thymosin was thus produced.
Another orbital-produced preparation of the interferon type is used for the treatment of viral and tumor dis eases. 161
Glavkosmos promotional literature gives details of the Foton 162 spacecraft (initially referred to as the Cosmos spacecraft) and the Zona, Splav-2 and Kashtan facilities. These are reproduced verba tim below.
THE FOTON
Spacecraft "Foton" is a retrievable carrier that can accommodate microgravity experiments in the field of material processing or bio technology intended to obtain different materials with new or improved features.
The flight opportunities for 1990 are available.
Basic data on "Foton" flight
- Flight duration: 14-30 days
- Payload weight: up to 500 kgs
- Payload capsule volume: up to 4.7 m 3
- Average daily energy supply - 400 watts
- Peak energy supply (1.5 hour a day - maximum) - 700 watts
- Orbital parameters: apogee - 300-400 km perigee - 220-250 km inclination - 62.8°
- During the flight the customer is supplied with the telemetry data and with an opportunity to form control commands.
- The facility is returned to the customer within 24 hours after the landing of the payload.
"Zona" Facility
The "Zona" facility is designed for the manufacturing of crystal materials using a zonal melting technique.
The process is conducted in a sealed quartz ampoule.
The melting through the narrow zone in a crystal material is made by the electric heater. During the experiment the ampoule with its content is being moved by the precision electromagnetic drive. The electric control system automatically maintains with a high precision the given level of the heating-up temperature and the rate of the sample's shift.
The facility can be fitted with the relevant heaters with due ac count to the material being processed. At the customer's request the zonal melting might be conducted in a constant magnetic field.
In case of an experiment on-board the spacecraft the down-link is made possible allowing to transmit back to the Earth the data related to the technological process parameters. At the same time the on-board registration of the micro-loads acting upon the facility is provided.
Zona Facility—Technical Performances
Heater temperature, °C ............................................................ 500-1200
Given temperature maintenance error, °C ................................... ± 1
Melting through zone time preceding the drive initiation, minute .... 20-120
Shift rate, mm/h .......................................................................... 1-15
Shift rate control error, per cent ................................................... ± 1
Shift drive pace, mm .................................................................... 60
Maximum sample dimensions:
—diameter, mm ............................................................................15
—length, mm ................................................................................ 110
"Splav-2" Facility
The "Splav-2" facility is intended to manufacture on-board the spacecraft the materials by the three-dimensional and directional crystallization techniques, gaseous and liquid-phase epitaxy.
The facility is made up of technological and electric segments. During the pre-launch ground preparation 12 metallic capsules are installed in the technological segment inside of which there are the quartz ampules with the materials samples.
The capsules are placed one by one into the furnace with the aid of a special device. The crystallization process is being fulfilled pro vided the capsule is completely stable, the latter being extremely important factor in microgravity.
For each capsule the technological processing mode could be as signed, e.g., heating-up temperature, melting duration under this temperature, cooling down rate (two different rates and the tem perature of the transfer from one rate to another might be as signed). This data is coded on a special punch plate provided for all capsules. The given technological mode is maintained with a high precision by the automatic control system.
In case of an experiment on-board the spacecraft the down-link is made possible allowing to transmit back to the Earth the data re lated to the technological process parameters. At the same time the on-board registration of the micro-loads acting upon the facility is provided.
"Splav 2" Facility—Technical performances
Heater temperature, °C ................................................................. 500-1050
Cooling down rates, °C/h .............................................................. 2.8; 5.6; 11.3; 22
Temperature maintenance error, °C ................................................ ± 3
Maximum temperature gradient, °C/cm ............................................ 140
Capsule's exterior diameter, mm ....................................................... 20
Thermal zone length, mm .................................................................. 150
"Kashtan" Facility
The "Kashtan" facility is designed for the separation and purifi cation of biologically active substances in microgravity by an elec trophoresis technique in a free stationary state liquid. In particu lar, either isoelectric focal pointing or zonal electrophoresis is made available.
The biocomponent separation process takes place in a thermosta tic electrophoresis device of a special configuration allowing to sub divide the general volume of the chamber into 49 isolated cells. Thus the stirring of different fractions is prevented.
At the customer's request the separation process might be regis tered on a photographic film. However in this case the electrophoresis device is not thermostatically controlled.
In case of an experiment on-board the spacecraft the down-link is made possible allowing to transmit back to the Earth the data re lated to the technological process parameters. At the same time the on-board registration of the micro-loads acting upon the facility is provided.
"Kashtan" Facility—Technical performances
Electrode voltage, V .................................................................... 500-5000
Separation chamber length, mm ................................................... 1200
Cross-section of the separation chamber, mm 2 .............................5x5 or 10x5
Separation chamber capacity, ml ....................................................35 or 70
Single cell capacity, ml ................................................................... 0.7 or 1.4
Thermostatic control temperature, "C ............................................. 5-25
Process registration rate on a photographic film, exposure/minutes ....1
Additional details on Foton were provided in an earlier Glavkos- mos publication. 163 The supply voltage was given as 27 + 4 V. The gas temperature and pressure inside the hermetically sealed sec tion were stated to be from 0 to 40"C and from 46.66 to 151.98 kPa (350 to 1140 mm Hg) respectively. Maximum electric current con sumption of the scientific equipment, taken from the main supply, was given as 25 A for continuous operation and 50 A for pulses not exceeding 200 ms duration. The somewhat loose employment of the term "power" to mean either current, in amperes, or power, in watts prompted an inquiry to Jardines as to the type of source of electrical power and brought the response that "Cosmos [sic] has solar panels, hence it can carry chemical batteries sufficient to supply 400 W power for a 30-day mission" and that "chemical bat teries and solar cell arrays are used for power supply." 164 It was also stated that:
The required precision of the adjustments of the scientif ic equipment including fields of view, external mounting of certain elements outside the flight configuration on special rods has to be guaranteed; the arrangement of the scientif ic equipment according to its mass has to be determined for each completing module, whereby mass, centering, int ernational, aerodynamic and other parameters of the spa ce station are to be taken into account within such limits as guarantee the experiment.
The radio control system of the orbital parameters localizes the spacecraft with a precision of ± 17.57 km on the orbit, ± 0.95 km in height and ± 0.63 km in lateral direction.
The frequency of channel interrogation of the radio telemetry system is 100 Hz in the direct transmission mode at 3 Hz in the registration, or recorded, mode.
The scientific equipment is operated by an automatic control system and can accept single commands given during radio commu nication sessions, programmed commands given by the control system at particular times, or by "Start of DT" and "End of DT" commands given by the control system, characterizing the direct transmission operation mode of the radio telemetry system. The commands are given as 27 V impulses of positive polarity, of 0.09- 0.8 s duration within a control circuit maximum current load of 0.8 A. The minimum interval between commands is 32 s. Up to ten single commands for the scientific equipment can be given as closing impulses for unfed relay points with closing durations of the contacts between 0.09 and 0.8 s, where the current of the contact circuit must not exceed 0.8 A. The scientific equipment must retain operating capability should the control logic become damaged and permit repeated reception of one single identical signal.
Stringent operational requirements for storage and transporta tion are specified.
The scientific equipment must function after a 2.5-years storage in adequate package or together with the space station in beatable storage rooms at an air temperature between 5 and 30°C and a relative humidity from 30 up to 80 percent. An air temperature increase up to 35°C and a relative humidity up to 90 percent for 60 days during a year's period is allowed.
In the storage period adjustment work on the scientific equipment is allowed once per year.
The scientific equipment must retain its operativeness
under outdoor conditions at temperatures from -40 up to -
50°C at a relative humidity from 20 to 80 percent for a
period of three months.
The scientific equipment must retain its operativeness after:
(a) transportation together with the space station:
10,000 km railway transport;
2,000 km transport by heavy goods vehicle;
(b) transport in adequate correct package:
up to 10,000 by railway cargo plane transport—unlimited distance; heavy goods vehicle transport up to 2,000 km. In the cargo plane pressure drop down to 20 kPa (150 mm Hg) is allowed for a period of 15 hours.
Comprehensive data relating to low frequency random vibration and shock are given, covering transportation, launch and landing phases.
Conditions during orbital flight, under which normal functioning of the scientific equipment is required, are specified both for equip ment mounted in the hermetical sector and on the exterior of the spacecraft:
Hermetical section: weightlessness;
air atmosphere (oxygen up to 2 percent, helium up to 0.01 percent)
pressure from 46.66 to 151.987 kPa (350 to 1140 mm Hg)
temperatures from 0 to 40°C; relative humidity up to 80 percent radiation ionization:
cosmic radiation with an intensity of 0.055 rad/ day;
solar explosions of 50 rad during the whole period of the flight Externally mounted: weightlessness deep vacuum 10" 9 mm Hg; temperatures from -50 to + 150°C; radiation ionization:
cosmic radiation 51.04 rad/day;
solar explosions of 3.7xl0 4 times during the whole
period of the flight
The scientific equipment, installed in the hermetical section, is exposed to a short-term pressure drop (down to 40 mm Hg) and to air temperatures between —40 and +60°C during the parachuting and landing phase.
Figure 20 is based on the Glavkosmos publication.
Table 30 lists the microgravity materials processing satellites in the Cosmos series from 1984 through 1987.
conclusion
A tabulation of the current status and unsolved problems for different complex systems in "Directions of Space Industrialization," published in 1985, provides an overview of topics considered in the Foton Spacecraft for Microgravity Materials Processing. All dimensions are in millimeters. Based on illustration from Glavkosmos.
AREA FOR SCIENTIFIC
EQUIPMENT INSIDE THE
HERMETICAL SECTION AREA FOR SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT
CONTAINER WITH FEEDER \ /OUTSIDE THE SPACECRAF
BLOCKS FOR SCIENTIFIC
Figure-20 Foton Spacecraft Design Layout
TABLE 30.—MICROGRAVITY MATERIALS PROCESSING COSMOS SATELLITES: 1984-1987
Cosmos number and designator Launch date Apogee Perigee Inclination Period Life
1645 85-29A .............................. 4/16/85 .........390 ........215 ......62.8.......... 90.6 ....4/29/85 13
1744 86-36A .............................. 5/21/86 .........372 ........219 ......62.8 ..........90.4 ....6/4/86 14
1841 87-37A .............................. 4/24/87......... 381 ........217.......62.8 ..........90.5 .....5/8/87 14
Notes:
- All satellites were launched from Plesetsk by the A 2
- Apogee and perigee heights in kilometers, inclination in degrees, orbital period in minutes, and lifetime to recovery in integer days.
- Orbital data, which may differ from that given in the Master Log, has been computed from two line orbital element sets provided by NASA's
Goddard Space Flight Center. - Table prepared for the Congressional Research Service by G. E. Perry.
previous sections. 165 As might have been expected, the status of work along different lines of space industrialization was at differ ent stages. Some space systems were already widely in use in the national economy of the Soviet Union and had a quite high techni cal-economic efficiency. In others, theoretical and experimental re search was being conducted over a wide front, whereas those in a third category were still in the stage of active research planning. Despite the different technical levels of solution of specific prob lems in the industrial exploitation of space there were several gen eral problems whose successful solution would profoundly influence progress in all the directions that were mentioned. These included the development of promising transportation-power systems, highly efficient and economical power converters and the development of optimum space technology methods. 166
The first complex system considered was that of space informa tion systems. Seven directions were listed: space communication systems, satellite meteorology, satellite navigation, space monitoring and preservation of the environment, space geography, spa^ mapping and exploration for minerals, and marine fishing. Their current status was described as "developed and used in space sys tems for national economic purposes." Unsolved problems listed were the development of comprehensive data systems, banks of sci entific and technical data with use of space systems, and increase in efficiency of economic use of space data systems. 167
The second complex system, space construction and production, was sub-divided into three topics. The current status of the first of these, technology of assembly and erection work in space, noted that practical work had begun in space with the welding experi ments on Soyuz 6 and Salyut 7. The development of complex of equipment and technical apparatus for use in space for assembly and erection of large structures were listed as unsolved prob lems. 168 Production of new and improved materials in space was the second topic considered and the current status noted that tech nological experiments had been carried out on piloted and auto matic space vehicles and that unsolved problems were the formula tion of scientific principles of space production and the develop ment of onboard technical complexes for production of materi als. 169 The current status of the third topic, use of extraterrestrial resources, was given as long-range research and optimization of transport-power systems was listed as the unsolved problem. 170
The third complex system was the production of high energies in space and was considered under three headings. The first of these was solar power satellites (see chapter 5, part 1). The current status was said to be long-range research and testing power trans formation systems, while the development of highly efficient and economical power transformers, transport systems, and erection methods were listed as unsolved problems. 171 Space optics and power transmission lines, the second heading, had long-range re search and the testing of components as its current status. Unsolved problems were the development of light film concentrators, methods for their assembly, development of space transportation systems and optimum construction of systems for transmission and use of energy. 172 The final heading, promising space transportation systems, once more had long-range research as its current status, together with the checking of principles for constructing new space transportation systems. Its unsolved problem was the changeover from thermochemical methods for generating thrust to new princi ples for constructing space transportation systems. 173
Although the Soviet Union may have been slow in capitalizing on the economic benefits of its space technology, there is no doubt that they are now fully aware of such benefits and are pursuing an active program of research to profit still further from their consid erable expertise, even to the extent of embarking on initiatives to exploit their products commercially for foreign customers.
References:
A . SOVIET SPACE PROGRAMS: 1981-87, SPACE SCIENCE, SPACE APPLICATIONS, MILITARY SPACE PROGRAMS, ADMINISTRATION, RESOURCE BURDEN, AND MASTER LOG OF SPACEFLIGHTS, Part 2, April 1989, Printed for the use of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 1989, Committee print 1981-87- part-2
154. Ibid.
155. Gubarev, V. Pravda, Jan. 1, 1984, p. 3.
156. TASS, Apr. 17, 1985.
157. Avduyevskiy, V. S., and L. V. Leskov. Zemlya i Vselennaya, Sept.-Oct, 1987. p. 6-11.
158. TASS, May 22, 1986.
159. TASS, 1017 GMT, Apr. 25, 1987.
160. U. S. S. R. Space Bulletin SB15, Novosti Press Agency, London, July 22, 1987, p. 3.
161.. Ibid.
162. Alternatively spelled Photon.
183 Space Station "Cosmos", Scientific Equipment, Basic Ratings and Technical Requirements. Glavkosmos. Supplied by Jardine Interplanetary Ltd., London.
164 Kovalyova, M. Jardine Interplanetary Ltd., London. Private communication.
165 Grishin, S. D. and L. V. Leskov, Zemlya i Vselennaya, May-June, 1985, p. 65-68.
166. Ibid.
167. Ibid.
168. Ibid.
169. Ibid.
170. Ibid.
171. Ibid.
172. Ibid.
173. . Ibid.
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