By studying space photographs taken by Meteor 28, on a 1:5,000,000 scale, and from Salyut 4, researchers at the M.V. Lo-monosov Moscow State University were able to conclude that the presence of gas and oil deposits is strongly correlated with the ex istence of linear structures but not circular ones. The Buzuluks- kaya depression, lying mainly within the area bounded by Kuyby- shev, Orenburg and Ural'sk was chosen for the study because of the exceptional clarity of the landscape features as viewed from space, comprehensive geological knowledge about several levels of its vertical structures, and the large number of gas and oil deposits already discovered there. 183
The U.S.S.R. Ministry of Geology is one of the main consumers of the widely distributed multispectral imagery produced in the Meteor-Priroda program. According to the estimates of geologists, the annual economic effect from the use of multispectral informa tion in detecting and defining more precisely tectonic structures and the lineaments of the Earth's crust alone is about ten million rubles. Data from photographs have been used to compile space tec tonic maps of the U.S.S.R. on scales of 1:5,000,000 and 1:2,500,000 that are used as the basis for predicting the presence of useful min erals and determining the overall strategy of prospecting work. Data have also been obtained for predicting potential oil-bearing and gas-bearing structures in several regions and the confinement of gold ore manifestations to areas where annular structures and linear faults intersect has been established in one of the eastern re gions of the Soviet Union. According to some estimates, the mone tary savings when territorial geological structures are studied by space methods are about three rubles per square kilometer. 184
Using satellite images, agronomists can monitor crop growth over large areas. It has also been discovered that with satellite im agery it is possible to detect the degree of moisture of various types of soil—from the most arid desert to irrigated farm land. 185 More accurate information on snow cover in the Tien Shan and Himala ya Mountains has enabled farmers to irrigate crops more effective ly. Space surveys also make possible the study of the formation and dessication of intermittent lakes. 186
The Russians plan to use Earth resources data from space in a variety of fields. Space surveys will be used for estimating crop yields and monitoring insect infestation. Forests and large land re serves will be monitored for blights as well as for fires. 187
This has now come to pass. Forest management specialists have achieved significant results through the use of satellite information to detect forest fire nuclei and monitor their propagation. Special techniques for using satellite information for this purpose, as well as for the operational evaluation of the weather situation in haz ardous fire periods in areas that are being protected and the orga nization of the utilization of airborne firefighting facilities, have been developed and introduced into operational practice at forest conservation establishments. 188
The Trifonov paper appears in an issue of Issledovaniye Zemli iz Kosmosa devoted entirely to remote sensing. Titles of the papers listed below reveal the great extent to which remote sensing tech niques are being used today. The majority of the work is based on data provided by the "Fragment" unit installed onboard experi mental Meteor satellites.
Danube delta dynamics study using satellite photographs.
Development of shore relief of Gulf of Riga from analyzing satellite images.
Study and mapping of agricultural land use from satellite images.
Mapping of forest vegetation by means of satellite images.
Study of anthropogenic influence on natural environment from multiband scanner image data.
Study and mapping of erosion relief of Kalach upland from multiband scanner images.
Satellite images obtained by means of Fragment system as basis of landscape mapping and physical geographical zoning of arid lands.
Earlier papers in the same issue deal comprehensively with the design of the satellites and their onboard instrumentation includ ing the Fragment multizonal scanning system. 189 This consists of an optico-mechanical scanning unit with calibration devices, a system of photo-receivers with a fiber-optics collector, and analog- to-digital converter, synchronization, commutation and multiplex ing devices, and a digital radio transmission unit operating in the 1 GHz band. The system measures the spectral energy brightness of natural formations in eight spectral bands with differing degrees of accuracy, using onboard calibrating and standard light sources during the measurements. Wavelengths of the eight bands are 0.4- 0.8, 0.5-0.6, 0.6-0.7, 0.7-0.8, 0.7-1.1, 1.2-1.3, 1.5-1.8, and 2.1-2.4 mi crons giving a resolution of 80 meters at the nadir from an oper ational height of 650 km. The creation of the Fragment complex was assisted by specialists from Karl Zeiss-Jena in the GDR, who developed and manufactured a reflecting telescope of 1 meter focal length and 240 mm diameter. In addition to the Fragment complex, Meteor 30 carried a BIK-E experimental on-board information complex consisting of a medium-resolution multizonal scanning unit with a tapered optico-mechanical scanner (MSU-SK), operat ing in the 0.5-0.6, 0.6-0.7, 0.7-0.8, and 0.8-1.0 micron bands, and a high-resolution multizonal scanning unit with electronic scanning using charge-coupled devices (MSU-E), operating in the 0.5-0.7, 0.7-0.8, and 0.8-1.0 micron bands, an information conversion and multiplexing unit, and a digital radio transmission unit operating in the 460-470 MHz band. Resolutions of these two units are 170 and 30 meters respectively. A third complex on Meteor 30 is the operational radio and television complex [RTVK] consisting of a du plicated complex of multizonal optico-mechanical scanning units with low (MSU-M) and medium (MSU-S) resolution, memory units and two radio systems operating in the meter and decimeter bands that are standard equipment on satellites of the Meteor series. The MSU-M operates in the 0.5-0.6, 0.6-0.7, 0.7-0.8, and 0.8-1.0 micron bands with a 1 km resolution and MSU-S operated in the 0.5-0.7 and 0.7-1.0 micron bands with a resolution of 240 meters. 190
Earlier, it was reported that Meteor 18 carried a microwave po- larimeter operating on a wavelength of 80 mm and that Meteor 25 carried a scanning infrared polarimeter operating in the 1.5-1.9 and 2.1-2.5 micron bands. 191
` Design criteria for remote sensing platforms include provisions of high dynamic accuracy and temperature stabilization for the place ment of the measuring instruments relative to the optical axes, being general-purpose making it possible to install various sets of experimental equipment easily, and, above all, suitability for the installation of correction engines for the initial setting of the cor rect orbit and subsequent control of it. The Meteor series space craft possessed all of these requirements to a considerable degree, both in the first-generation and (particularly) second-generation versions, having electrical and radio systems-power supply, orienta tion, thermal regulation, monitoring and programmed-command control—highly reliable designs.
In order to ensure the maximum coincidence of the spacecraft's optical axes as a whole, as determined by its orientation sensors, with the optical axes of the instruments, which require precise ori entation on the Earth the latter are placed on a single instrument platform. The platform is standardized to a considerable degree, making it possible to place different instruments on it. Most of the instruments' sensors were placed outside the spacecraft's sealed body, making it possible to avoid the use of windows, which would reduce the overall useful signal level and distort its spectral compo sition. The instruments have their own microclimate. Electronic and electrical units, which were not designed for use in open space, were assembled in the form of sealed monolithic units. Instruments that were particularly sensitive to vibrations and linear overloads arising during the launch phase or to vibrations arising during the rotation of inadequately balanced dynamic masses inside the spacecraft were mounted on special shock absorbers. When it was neces sary to preserve high geometric accuracy, the entire instrument platform holding the sensors was mounted on shock absorbers. Problems of providing nonintersecting fields of view for the sensors and the use of stationary transmitting antennas were solved. 1 9 2 It would appear that Meteor 18, 25, 28 and possibly 29 were based on the first generation Meteor bus.
Second generation buses were used with the introduction of the Fragment system on Meteor 30 and 31. These are distinguished from the first-generation buses by possessing increased accuracy of triaxial orientation and stabilization of the angular velocities, which make it possible to employ instruments with optico-mechani- cal scanning and local resolution of up to 80 meters, as well as an enlarged energy supply system capacity. There are also expanded capabilities for automatic timed-programmed control of the process es for obtaining and transmitting information, including control over the light conditions and sensitivity levels of the measuring equipment. Additional structural configuration and mass-to-size ca pabilities made it possible to install a multiband instrument com plex and several radio telemetry links. A general-purpose automatic-testing system and technique, using the control computer's hardware and software, made it possible to carry out ground checks of instrumentation performance and ensure reliable on-orbit oper ation. The adoption of the improved Meteor-2 bus made it possible to continue operating the RTVK, which provides low and medium resolution multispectral information as APT. 193
The operational purpose, retrograde orbit and some details of the telemetry of the experimental Meteor satellites have been dis cussed earlier in section III.D.4 of this chapter and will not be re peated. The first FANAS for an experimental Meteor satellite was issued for Meteor 30 on June 16, 1981, almost exactly 1 year to the day following the launch of that satellite. It is reproduced, as re ceived, below:
TV SET 2 CONNECTED: CHANNEL 2, 0.6-0.7 MKM—EVEN DAYS CHANNEL 4, 0.8-1.1 MKM—ODD DAYS LAUNCH IN 18 JUNE 1980, INCLINATION—98 GR SCANNING FOUR CHANNEL TELESPECTROPHOTOMETER THE SECOND SET IS SWITCHED ON, ANY FOUR SPECTRAL CHANNELS SWATH WIDTH 1800 KM, RESOLUTION IN NADIRE 1 KM RADIOSIGNAL:
TRANSMISSION FREQUENCY—137.15 MHZ AMPLITUDE-FREQUENCY MODULATION DEVIATION—9.6 MHZ LOW-FREQUENCY SIGNAL: SUBCARRIER FREQUENCY—2400 HZ
SUBCARRIER MODULATION-AMPLITUDE PEAK AMPLITUDE CORRE SPONDS TO WHITE LEVEL REGISTRATION: INTERFACE INDEX—350
SCANNING SPEED—240 LINES PER MINUTE SCANNING DENSITY—5 LIN./MM LINE DIMENSION—161 MM
NUMBER OF HALF-TONES—NOT LESS THAN 12 SCANNING: SETS 1 and 2—LINEAR
INCLINATION OF SCAN PLANE FOR THE FIRST SET IS MINUS 4 MINUTES FOR THE SECOND ONE—MINUS 19GR35'
There would appear to be a misprint in the units for deviation which should, in fact, be kilohertz, KHZ.
It will be seen that the spacecraft operated in different modes from day to day. Imagery produced by Leslie Currington, at Welwyn Garden City, England, around the time of this FANAS an nouncement revealed that channel 4, transmitted on June 1, lacked synchronization lines, whereas these were retained on channel 2, causing some difficulty in lining up the facsimile printer. Differences in ground detail, particularly in the rendering of snow cover on the Alps (better in the visible, channel 2) and the distinction be tween land and water (better in the infra-red, channel 4) are quite marked. The density wedge between synchronization was latitude- dependent, being more pronouncedly contrasted at 66° N than 33° N. Depth of modulation differed between channels being 85 percent on channel 2 and 95 percent on channel 4.
manned flights gathering earth resources data
Although manned spaceflight missons are discussed in great detail in part 2 of this study, it is appropriate to consider some of the aspects relating to Earth observations in this section.
Soyuz 9
The scientific and organizational principles of aerospace studies of physical geography were laid in the Department of Atmospheric Physics at Leningrad University. During the period 1968-72 it car ried out fundamental investigations in this field for the first time in the Soviet Union. First programs were drawn up for photograph ing natural formations for manned spaceships, beginning with the joint flight of Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 in January 1969. Initial studies for the comprehensive interpretation (geological, geomorphological and soils-geobotanical) of space photographs taken from Soyuz 3 in 1968 and subsequent manned spaceflights. The Department devel oped programs and carried out the first subsatellite experiments— coordinated ground aerial and space surveys, commencing with the "troika" mission of Soyuz 6, 7 and 8 in 1969 and Soyuz 9 in 1970. 194 In the course of its 18-day mission, Soyuz 9 went a long way in gathering Earth resources data, both because of the amount of time available for such work and because it built upon the more limited experience of its predecessors. On the 5th day of the mis sion, Nikolayev and Sevastyanov watched a large tropical storm in the Indian Ocean and observed surf on a continental shore. The next day they observed forest fires in Africa near Lake Chad. They used both black and white and multispectral color film to photograph the Earth's surface which was expected to throw light on problems of identification of different kinds of Earth rock and soil, the moisture content of glaciers, the location of schools of fish, and estimation of timber reserves. They also made studies of aerosol particles in the atmosphere by observing twilight glow. 195
Photographs of the Sal'skiy dry steppe region of the Rostovskaya Oblast obtained from Soyuz 9 in 1970 were compared with those of the same area taken from Salyut 6 in 1978 and revealed numerous changes to have occurred over the 8-year period. The structure of crop rotation had become more complicated, many fields had been subdivided and efforts had been made to overcome monoculture in order to preserve soil fertility. New highways had been construct ed, reservoirs had been built, populated places had grown, and the extent of virgin land had been reduced. Some fields had been abandoned, mostly due to surface erosion and the surveys made it possible to make a linear forecast of land exploitation up to 1986. 196
Soyuz 22
This 8-day mission, with cosmonauts Bykovskiy and Aksenov, launched on September 15, 1976, was the only Soyuz to fly at an inclination other than 51.6°. The choice of a 65° inclination was to permit photography of the territory of the German Democratic Republic, much of which lies to the north of 52° N, latitude. A major item of equipment was the MKF-6 camera made by Karl Zeiss- Jena, which was accommodated atop the orbital module. The flight of the Soyuz 22 spaceship and the "Raduga" (Rainbow) experiment conducted on the basis of the flight were devoted to perfecting methods and equipment for photographing the Earth from space. It was based on multispectral photography and the visual-instrumental interpretation of images obtained by the optical-photographic synthesis of multispectral photographs. The camera obtained thou sands of photographs of the territories of the G.D.R. and U.S.S.R.
A special feature of the Raduga experiment was that in addition to perfecting the methods of multispectral space photography it pursued the goal of creating standard apparatus for regular investigations of the Earth's natural resources using space technology. Scientific documents summing up the program were prepared by scientists of the U.S.S.R. and published as a collective monograph "Soyuz 22 Investigates the Earth" 197 and the atlas "Interpretation of Multispectral Aerospace Photographs: Techniques and Results," which was released in 1982. 198
The MKF-6 camera and the associated MSP-4 multichannel syn thesizing projector together form a unique set of equipment. Photo graphs taken with the camera are distinguished by their high reso lution (up to 200 lines per millimeter) and narrow spectral bands (up to 40 nanometers). The projector can be used not only to produce high-quality, enlarged, synthesized color photographs, but also for the direct interpretation of images produced on the instru ment's screen. Later versions, the MKF-6M and MSP-4B, developed on the basis of the results of the first tests on Soyuz 22 are being produced in series by the East German company and an MKF-6M was installed in the Salyut 6 orbital space station. 199
Further details of this version are to be found in the following section.
SALYUT STATIONS
The Salyut 4 orbital station, launched on December 26, 1974, functioned in orbit for more than 2 years. More than 4.5 million square kilometers of the territory of the U.S.S.R. were photo graphed during this time. As a result of this photography, a deposit of fresh water was discovered in the Kyzylkumy desert as were po tential regions for prospecting for oil. The Kaskad (Cascade) system was developed in order to realize economical orbital orientation of the station, in an automatic mode, when photographing the Earth's surface. 200
The importance of visual-instrument studies of the Earth was manifest during the long-duration missions to Salyut 6. Such obser vations are those made both by using the naked eye and using vari ous instruments: binoculars, optical range finders, colorimeters, etc. The results are documented using cameras, television and spec trometers. Plans for a program of Earth observations from Salyut 6 for the first long-duration crew were based on results and reports from earlier Soviet manned missions. 201 A characteristic feature of this program was the fact that the planned observation problems could be more precisely defined by the specialists and the cosmo nauts themselves in flight. Besides the traditional operations of controlling remote sensing equipment, the program assigned the crew the duty of more precise definition of the objects of investiga tion and selection of the time to study them as a function of illumi nation conditions, meteorological situations and other factors. Thus, the success of the entire experiment was determined by the creative capabilities of the crew, their training and fitness, and also the level of operative consultations between the cosmonauts and the assignors of the individual missions. 202
The Salyut 6 station and its fixed position Earth observation in strumentation demanded that active stabilization of the station, using low-thrust engines, was used maintaining the longitudinal axis parallel to the Earth's surface. The cosmonauts were also per mitted to make visual-instrument observations when the station was in the drift mode and they soon discovered that, in a number of cases when approaching the target area, the station was oriented so that the solar panels cut off the view of the Earth from the bin oculars and portable cameras that had been set up. The cosmo nauts hit on the idea of orienting the station with its longitudinal axis along the local vertical and giving it an angular velocity in the orbital plane equal to its mean motion, obtaining the required ini tial conditions by manual control of microthrusters, using a wide- angle viewer. This provided them with an almost panoramic view from the five windows of the station's transfer compartment. In view of this, it is possible that later generation space stations will have their remote sensing instruments aimed along the longitudi nal axis of the orbital complex so that pictures will be taken in the gravitational stabilization mode. The resulting increase in atmos pheric drag will be counteracted by in-orbit refueling. 203
Another factor in favor of the use of portable rather than fixed position instruments is their ability to be trained on targets remote from the station's ground track. The choice of a 31-revolution re peating ground track on alternate days in support of launch-to-ren dezvous considerations implies that targets midway between ground tracks separated by 16 revolutions, a longitude separation of some 11.5°, never fall within the field of view of fixed position instrumentation. Using portable cameras and binoculars, cosmonauts are able to observe and record off-track targets.
Although not part of the station's original equipment, binoculars were delivered to the cosmonauts to support the program of obser vations. It was determined that 6X and 12X magnifications were the most convenient. The cosmonauts also requested that topographical maps for their use should be colored in accordance with the true color of different landscape zones. During the second long- duration mission to Salyut 6 the number of shades of color was in creased to 196. 204
Observations of the natural environment were grouped into six sections: geology, geography, oceanology, glaciology, meteorology, and environmental control. The glaciological investigations and ex periments aboard the Salyut 6 orbital station were described in an article by joint authors, including cosmonauts Grechko and Ivan-chenkov. Observations were made for the first time in 1978 by two expeditions aboard Salyut 6. Visual observations were made using binoculars. The scales of photographs taken from about 350 km were 1:2,000,000 and 1:5,000,000, the surveyed features sometimes being far from the subsatellite point and in most cases the photographs were oblique. In the first observations emphasis was on the Pamir region. Other glaciological observations were made in South America and Africa. 205
Writing in Pravda at the beginning of the Soyuz 39 mission, under the title, "A Look at the Earth," A. Koval' summarized the observations of the Earth made during the series of international flights to Salyut 6 under the Interkosmos program. During the first two of these, the MKF-6M multispectral camera was used to take pictures of the territories of Czechoslovakia and Poland. The third flight continued the work of the "Raduga" program initiated during the Soyuz 22 mission. This necessitated cooperation between the Priorda State Center of the U.S.S.R. and the G.D.R. Academy of Sciences' Central Geophysical Institute. After this, analagous joint experiments were prepared by Soviet specialists and those from the countries of all other international crews. Although Soyuz 33 was unable to dock with Salyut 6, the Bulgarian-produced spec trometer, "Spektr-15," was delivered to the station in the un manned Progress 5 and used to investigate the spectral reflective characteristics of different natural objects and their variations from place to place and from time to time.
During the flight of the Hungarian cosmonaut, synchronous ob servations by aircraft and a mobile information and measurement complex operating along the station's ground track were used for ground-truth investigations at test ranges in the Hungarian P.R. at Abadsalok, Pents, Balaton, and Dunay. However, in an article in the Hungarian press, published after the flight, it was reported that Farkas has been unable to take pictures of Hungary with the MFK-6M camera because it had been late afternoon when Saluyt 6 flew over Hungary and the amount of light had been insufficient for photography. When Salyut 6 had been in the region during lighter periods, Hungary had been "just on the horizon." 206 On the next international flight, 23 photographic sessions provided pic tures of the territory of Vietnam, silt deposits in the Mekong Delta, and geological structures. The latter have a potential for the discovery of useful minerals.
Pictures of Cuba taken on the next flight in the series revealed salt-dome structures in the center of the island. Studies of the Pinar-del-Rio zone and an analysis of the color characteristics of the sea surface around the island were also carried out. The Mon golian cosmonaut's flight was to continue ground-truth investigations and perform a variation of the "Biosphere" experiment, first performed on the third flight, under the name "Biosphere- Mon." 207
Details of the two special cameras, MSF-6M and KATE-140, were given by Kuchumov. 208 He claimed that, in the Salyut 6 mis sion, practically all of the Soviet Union south of 52 °N. had been covered by photographs taken in different seasons and that the ter ritories of all countries participating in the Interkosmos program had been photographed.
The MKF-6M camera, built by Karl Zeiss-Jena, has six spectral channels, each with its own lens and filter. Four of these lie in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum and the other two in the near infrared region. Each of the six simultaneously obtained 56 by 81 mm spectral frames bears an image of the same area of the Earth's surface covering some 35,000 sq. km. Each cassette has a film supply of 1,200 frames. Precisely calibrated shutter speeds, fixed relative-aperture values, and a calibration device built into the camera for the printing in of an optical step wedge and fiducial marks give the camera photometric capability. Image-movement compensation and the use of fine-grained film produce a resolution of between 10 and 30 meters.
The outer surface of the porthole over which the camera is mounted is protected by a cover which is opened only when photog raphy is in process. Operation of the MKF-6M is from a control panel which receives a signal at the end of the film or if the film breaks. Additionally, a number of parameters are transmitted over the radio link to Earth which provide data on exposure times and the intervals between exposures as well as an indication of the camera's operational status. Although the electronics unit malfunc tioned during the extended Salyut 6 mission it was replaced by a reserve unit delivered to cosmonauts Kovalenok and Ivanchenkov during the second long-duration mission. The breakdown was said to have had minimal effect on the planned program of photograph ic observation.
The KATE-140 is a large-format topographic camera capable of producing photographs suitable for precision photographic-survey work. The 85° field of view enables a single frame to contain an image 450 by 450 km from the 350 km Salyut 6 orbit. The camera can be programmed for both single and strip photographs with a given interval and a punching machine is used to separate the strips. The camera has two film cassettes, each with a 600-frame film supply. The camera can be controlled from several panels at various locations within the station as well as by the programma ble device. It can also be operated on radio command from Earth without the crew's participation. The times at which the shutter is activated are recorded and telemetered to Earth.
Another instrument, developed by specialists in Bulgaria for use on the Soyuz 33 mission to Salyut 6 was the Spektr-15 satellite spectrometer which had been delivered to the orbital station by Progress 5 earlier in 1979. Rukavishnikov, the commander of Soyuz 33, said before launch, "Ivanov and I are looking forward to per forming responsible and complex work in orbit. The Bulgarian side has planned an interesting series of experiments. They have all been worked out and prepared by Bulgarian scientists. The Spektr- 15K experiment in spectroscopic surveying of the Earth from space promises to be particularly interesting. Such a study has so far not been undertaken anywhere at any time." 209 Following the abortive attempt at docking and the subsequent premature return to Earth, the Spektr-15 was operated by Lyakhov and Ryumin. On June 27, 1979, they studied optical phenomena in the atmosphere and also atmospheric pollution near large industrial areas using the Spektr- 15 and Duga instruments. 210 The Spektr-15 recorded light reflected from the Earth in 15 spectral bands making it possible to distin guish ripe from unripe crops, or to define boundaries of ocean cur rents and accumulations of plankton. The Duga (Rainbow) was de signed for study of phenomena in the upper layers of the atmos phere. 211
References:
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A. SOVIET SPACE PROGRAMS: 1976-80 (WITH SUPPLEMENTARY DATA THROUGH 1983), UNMANNED SPACE ACTIVITIES, PREPARED AT THE REQUEST OF Hon. JOHN C. DANFORTH, Chairman, COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE, SCIENCE, AND TRANSPORTATION, UNITED STATES SENATE, Part 3, MAY 1985, Printed for the use of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, 99th Congress, 1 st. session, COMMITTEE PRINT, S. Prt. 98-235, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON: 1985
173 Raleigh, Lani H. Soviet Space Programs, 1971-75. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976, p. 367
174 Tass, Moscow, Mar. 13, 1965. 2015 G.m.t. sTass, Moscow, Mar. 10, 1975. 1757 G.m.t.
176 Andronov, I., Pravda, Moscow, May 25, 1972, p. 3.
177 Idem.
178 Prushkar, A. High-Altitude View, Izvestiya, Moscow, Aug. 1975, p. 5.
179 Bryukhanov, V. Aerogeologiya Trust, Orbital Geology, Izvestiya, Moscow, July 25, 1974, p
2.
1`80 Op. cit., p. 3
181 Gerasimov, L.M., and V. Yu. Luskina, Novosibirsk Tektonika Sibiri, vol. 8, 1980, pp. 102- 120.
182 Filatova, N.I., et al., Geotektonika, No. 5, September-October 1980, pp. 105-118.
183 Trofimov, D.M., and B.I. Dmitriyeva, Issledovaniye Zemli iz Kosmosa, No. 4, July-August 1981, pp. 39-44.
I84 Trifonov, Yu. V., Issledovaniye Zemli iz Kosmosa, No. 5, September-October 1981, pp. 8-
185 Vinogradov, B.V., and A.A. Grigor'yev, Viagooborot V Prirode i Yego Rol'v Formir,
Moscow, Resursov Presn Vod, Stroyizdat, 1973, pp. 204-217.
186 Idem.
187 Andronov, I,, op. cit., p. 3
188 Trifonov, Yu. V., op. cit.
189. Various authors, Issledovaniye Zemli iz Kosmosa, No. 5, September-October 1981, pp. 5- 138. Translated in JPRS L/10266, U.S.S.R. Report, Space, (FOUO 1/82), Jan. 20, 1982, pp. 1-89, and JPRS 81552, U.S.S.R. Report, Space, No. 17, Aug. 17, 1982, pp. 81-88.
190 Issledovaniye Zemli iz Kosmosa, No. 1, January-February 1981, pp. 5-6.
191 W.M.O., No. 411, op. cit.
192 Trifonov, Yu. V. Issledovaniye Zemli iz Kosmosa, No. 5, September-October 1981, pp. 8-20.
193 Trifonov, Yu. V. Issledonvaniye Zemli iz Kosmosa, No. 5, September-October 1981, pp. 21- 27.
194 Vinogradov, B.V. Vestnik Akademii Nauk S.S.S.R., No. 12, 1979, pp. 86-94.
195 Soviet Space Programs, 1971-75. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, Aug. 30, 1976, p. 186.
196. Vinogradov, B.V., A.S. Ivanchenkov, V.V. Kovalenok, A.G. Nikolayev and V.I. Sevas t'yanov Doklady Akademii Nauk S.S.S.R., vol. 249, No. 6, 1979, pp. 1501-1504.
197 Izdatel'stvo "Nauka," 1980; Adademie-Verlag Berlin, 1980.
198 Sidorenko, A.V. Issledovaniye Zemli iz Kosmosa, No. 2, March-April 1982, pp. 5-9.
199 Idem.
200 Feoktistov, K.P. Zemlya i Vselennaya, No. 5, September-October 1981, pp. 10-17.
201 Grechko, G.M., Yu. V. Romanenko, et al. Issledovaniye Zemli iz Kosmosa, No. 1, January-
February 1982, pp. 5-13.
202 Idem.
203 Idem.
204. Idem.
205. Denisov, L.V., et al., Issledovaniye Zemli iz Kosmosa, No. 1, 1980, pp. 25-34.
206 Peto, P.O. Budapest, Nepszabadsag, Jan. 28, 1981, p. 2.
207 Koval', A. Pravda, Moscow, Mar. 28, 1981, p. 3.
208 Kuchumov, v. Aviatsiya i Kosmonavtika, No. 1, January 1982. pp. 40-41.
209 Tass, Moscow, Apr. 11, 1979. 1610 G.m.t.
210 Moscow Home Service, June 27, 1979. 0230 G.m.t.
211 Moscow Home Service, July 3, 1979. 800 G.m.t.
• Ms. Raleigh Is a physical sciences analyst In the Science Policy Research Division, Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress.
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