1976-1980 chronology of Soviet Space Forecasts
INTRODUCTION
•Prepared by: Mrs. Charles S. (Jean) Sheldon, wife of the late Dr. Charles S. Sheldon II; Mr. Jeffrey Enckson, who was a graduate student intern in the Science Policy Research Division from September 1981-May 1982; Mr. Christopher Dodge, a specialist in Life Sciences in the Science Policy Research Division; and Ms. Patricia Humphlett an analyst in Aviation and Space Sciences in the Science Policy Research Division, CRS.
Former reports covering the years 1966 through 1970 and 1970 through 1975 prepared for the Senate contained a chronology of Soviet space forecasts. Although the following chronology covers the years 1976 through 1980, information not available when the 1975 report went to press is reported. The purpose of this chronology is to gain insights on future goals and trends of the Soviet space program through the statements of Soviet officials, scientists, engineers, and cosmonauts.
1975
In an interview reported in Pravda, Academician R. Z. Sagdeyev and Prof. V. G. Zolotukhin commented on the importance of computers in the space program.
Question. What are the principal uses of the electronic computer in space research?
Answer. The first and most often practiced is determination of the parameters of the space equipment. Although this work essentially involves solution of the well-known problem of mechanics of the motion of a body, it nevertheless requires extensive computations of the optimization of trajectories and the determination of the orientation of a spaceship relative to the main axes.
Recent years have seen the intensive development of the methods for mathematical modeling of complex systems. The modern spaceship serves as a typical example of such a system. The satellite-rocket combination is described empirically or theoretically by the obtained mathematical relationships and the computer is then used to check whether or not a unit, designed according to a particular plan, is properly performing.
Still another direction is the direct processing of experimental results.
Question. What problems urgently require solution for further extending the capabilities of the computer in space research?
Answer. Modern computers have an operating speed of the order of several million operations per second. Their memory is designated for the storage of gigantic masses of information corresponding to millions of pages of printed text. However, even the most universal computer cannot efficiently solve the problems given it unless a number of additional steps are taken, the most important of which is a close association between the experimenter and the computer.
It should be added that a computer operating in the space research field is subject
to the same failings as all other computers. This bottleneck is in its servicing and repair. Every organization must have its staff of operators. But it is still impossible for every deficiency to be eliminated without outside help. At the present time a centralized computer servicing agency is being
organized, but it does not yet have enough specialists: they are being "snatched up" by the various ministries and departments.
With each passing year we gather more and more information from space, significant for basic research as well as many areas of the national economy. We must do everything possible to shorten the path between obtaining this information and using it for practical purposes. Electronic computer technology plays the dominating role here. (Translation: "Space and the Computer," interview with Academician R. Z. Sagdeyev and Prof. V. G. Zolotukhin; Moscow, Pravda, Nov. 13, 1975, p. 3.)
Reported in Pravda on November 16, 1975 Academician Keldysh evaluated the results of the flights of Venera 9 and Venera 10 as of outstanding scientific importance. He said these two vehicles represent a new generation of space vehicles, and although they have features in common with the stations which have been launched toward Mars, they differ fundamentally from them primarily with respect to construction of the descent modules. Keldysh also answered a question dealing with life on other planets and one on the importance of the study of planets of the solar system.
Question. What do you think about the existence of life on other planets?
Answer. The investigations which have been made indicate that there is no highly organized life on the other planets. Some hope still remains that very simple forms of life may be discovered on Mars. Our information on Martian natural conditions does not completely make it possible to exclude its existence. With respect to Venus, there is no possibility that life exists there, at least at the present time.
Question. What is the basic importance of study of planets of the solar system?
Answer. This is a necessary stage in learning about the universe which surrounds man, for a better understanding of our own planet. We are now witnesses of the onset of this stage. Space research provided us with qualitatively new possibilities for this purpose. The gradual accumulation of knowledge in this field is providing necessary data for solving one of the fundamental problems in modern natural science—the problem of the origin and evolution of the solar system.
The new and outstanding success in the study of Venus achieved on the threshold of the Twenty-Fifth Congress of the Communist Party is remarkable evidence of the creative genius of our people and a major contribution to the progress of all man-kind. (Translation: "Automatic Apparatus Makes Studies," interview with Academician M. V. Keldysh; Moscow, Pravda, Nov. 16, 1975, p. 3.)
Prof. K. P. Feoktistov, the well-known space designer and cosmonaut, is quoted regarding the significance of the automatic docking of Soyuz 20 and Salyut 4.
Automatic docking is vitally necessary for the further development of cosmonautics. Visualize, for example, that a meteorite has penetrated the skin of a transport ship carrying cosmonauts to a station. In such a case the earth can send an unmanned ship on which the crew would be able to return to the earth. In the future orbital stations will have several docking units and unmanned ships can be used as freight rockets for delivering to crews working a long time in orbit both food and materials for scientific investigations, replenish fuel supplies and return to earth the fruits of the labors of the cosmonauts, such as motion pictures and still photographs and magnetic tapes. The experiment which is now being carried out is of great importance for the future of cosmonautics and we are happy that it is going successfully. (Translation: "Meeting with the 'Salyut'," by Boris Konovalov; Moscow, Izvestiya, Nov. 21, 1975, pp. 1, 3.)
In December, 1975, Boris Petrov, chairman of the "Interkosmos" council, and Burnazyan, U.S.S.R. deputy minister for health commented on the importance of cooperating in space research and providing for prolonged manned spaceflights.
The complex experiments carried out on the Cosmos-782 biological satellite, with the participation of specialists from Hungary, Romania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, USSR, United States and France, will assist the further consolidation of international cooperation, and will contribute substantially to improving systems providing for prolonged manned spaceflights. (Moscow, Domestic Service (in Russian), 2328 GMT, Dec. 22, 1975.)
1976
Several pages in the CPSU Central Committee Draft Directives for 1976-80 Five-Year Plan contain goals of a scientific and/or technical nature. One of these goals deals directly with space.
The continuation of the study and conquest of space and the expansion of research into the utilization of space facilities in the study of the earth's natural resources, in meteorology, navigation, and communications, and for other national economic needs.
Early in January Boris Petrov reported the coming of a new generation of Intercosmos satellites.
The socialist countries are switching to the use of a new generation of artificial earth's satellites—automatic standardized orbital stations. Academician Boris Petrov, who is chairman of "Intercosmos" council, told Tass.
Larger and more sophisticated, these satellites will enable to conduct [sic] more complex experiments under the "Intercosmos" programme, said the Soviet scientist. He reminded that [sic] nine socialist countries are taking part in the programme— Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia. Fourteen "Intercosmos" satellites were launched, as well as three "Vertikal" geophysical rockets and many meteorological rockets. Comprehensive space experiments have been conducted.
The cooperation, which is based on the principles of equality, covers space physics, biology and medicine, meteorology and communications, the scientist said. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1557 GMT, Jan. 8, 1976.)
Academician Glushko gave a summary of the important work being done in the Soviet space program and at the same time commented about the development of long term orbital stations and about international cooperation.
The principal directions in the development of Soviet space research in the tenth five-year plan are associated primarily with many-sided investigation of the earth from space, exploration of circumterrestrial space and study of the nearest planets in the solar system. Investigations of earth from space have been exceptionally productive and their further development is a must. The mastery of near space has already made it possible to achieve much in the development of different forms of global communication and supplying our planet with meteorological information. The fundamental means for study and mastery of space is the creation of long-term orbital stations supplied with powerful research instruments. Crews working aboard these stations will not only study the earth and adjacent space, but will also carry out important astrophysical investigations. The crews themselves will serve as subjects for biomedical investigations. Prolonged presence of cosmonauts aboard a station will make it possible to perfect conditions for safe long-term work in space. Without solution of this fundamental problem there can be no talk of man's fully effective occupation of space. One of the principal tasks of orbital stations is carrying out extensive experiments in the development of new industrial processes using the unique conditions of space. The time is at hand to lay the basis for future space industry. In the more remote future we can think of the gradual development of industry and power production in space in order to safeguard our planet against the destructive influence of technical progress. In the new five-year plan we will continue exploration of the nearest celestial bodies—the moon, Venus and Mars, accompanied by a further development of international cooperation in space. (Summary: "Interview with Academician Valentin Petrovich Glushko"; Moscow, Zemlya i Vselennaya, No. 1, 1976, pp. 2-3.)
Leonid Brekhovskikh stated that satellites would be used for ocean research. Also, the purpose of the polymode experiment (with the Soviet Union and the U.S.A. as the main participants) would be to find out the nature of the huge vortical formations in the ocean, discovered by Soviet scientists in 1970. He continued by saying substantial results should be expected from the first global experiment under the pigap program. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1746, GMT, January 1976.)
In March, Leonov said that long-functioning orbital stations are the mainline of space research. Furthermore, he stated that the Soviet Salyut stations enable two cosmonauts to carry out a wide range of investigations and observations in the interests of fundamental and applied science and the national economy. (Moscow, Tass (in English) 1031 GMT, Mar. 31, 1976.) In addition, in April Petrov, head of the "Intercosmos"—the Council for International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space—revealed that cooperation was being mounted with Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Cuba, Poland, Mongolia, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. An Indian satellite was shot up with the help of a Soviet rocket in 1975.
As envisaged by the decisions of the 25th CPSU Congress, the Soviet scientists will continue exploring space and using space technology in studying the planet's resources, in meteorology, oceanology, navigation and communications, academician Petrov said at the end of the interview. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1357 GMT, Apr. 9, 1976.)
Vladimir Shatalov writing about space navigation in the "new five year period" expressed the opinion that the limit of human endurance of weightlessness remains an important problem in space navigation.
We do not yet know these limits, he wrote, but the length of time already under gone in weightlessness is sufficient for the exploitation of permanent orbital stations, which Soviet science considers the decisive factor in the mastery of outer space. The stations will make it possible to establish research laboratories in terrestrial space, for extensive research in geophysics, astronomy, astrophysics, biology, medicine, and space technology. The orbital stations will help mankind to master terrestrial space ... the goal, that large collectives of experts worked hard to achieve, has been reached. An optimal scheme of space exploration with the participation of man has been found and is being successfully put to use. (Moscow, Tass, 1208 GMT, Apr. 9, 1976.)
Shatavlov continued to comment on manned flights.
Why is it that in the field of manned flights Soviet cosmonautics is putting the main stress on creating long-lived orbital stations? It is because Soviet science regards them to be a decisive means for the broad exploitation of space. They are assisting us in organizing major scientific laboratories in circumterrestrial space for carrying out broad investigations in the interests of geophysics, astronomy, astrophysics, biology, medicine and space engineering. The stations will become orbital cosmodromes where experts can assemble interplanetary expeditions and spacecraft themselves. In the future there will be unmanned transport ships for delivery of freight to stations and for refueling them. Such ships will be able to return to the earth with scientific instruments for repair or replacement, with photographic, motion picture film and magnetic tapes. But there may also be transport ships of a different type which need not necessarily return to earth. Instead of a complex descent module there may be a container with supplies of fuel, water, food and other expendables needed for station operation. After delivery of the freight to a station such a ship will undock and burn up in the atmosphere. Such transport ships will be simpler, safer and less expensive. Progress in orbital observatories is more and more setting free the crews for collection of the information necessary for science and the national economy. During the tenth five-year plan Soviet cosmonautics will continue study and exploitation of space, broadening investigations with the use of space vehicles in studying natural resources, in meteorology, navigation, communication and for satisfying other needs of the national economy. (Abstract: "Fifteen Years in Space," by V. Shatalov, USSR Flier-Cosmonaut; Moscow, Aviatsiya i Kosmonavtika. No. 4, 1976, pp. 4-6.)
Continuing with the same theme, Georgiy Beregovoy, head of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, wrote for the Soviet Weekly Moscow News.
Making long-term predictions is unwise; cosmonautics has developed so quickly that it surpassed the most optimistic forecasts. But one thing is clear—huge complexes that can stay in a near-earth orbit for several years will be created. Crews will shunt back and forth on shuttle craft. There will be bases and camps on the moon. And in the more distant future there will be expeditions, first to Mars and then to other planets. (Moscow, Tass, 0835 GMT, Apr. 10, 1976.)
In May, 1976, there was a report of the progress of the cooperation of India and the Soviet Union that referred to an Earth satellite to study natural resources.
Soviet and Indian specialists are working to create an artificial earth satellite to study natural resources. Its launching is planned for 1978; writes the magazine of the USSR Academy of Sciences Zemlya I Vselennaya (Land and Universe). (Moscow, Tass in English, 0900 GMT, May 25, 1976.)
The future of communications satellites was given attention by Fedorov in July.
In accordance with the program for further development of the communication system and color television and the use of artificial earth satellites, during the past year a new type of space relay station was launched in the Soviet Union—the "Raduga" satellite, assigned the international registration designation "Statsionar-l." . . . , now space radio communication is occupying one of the leading places in the general system of communication means for the country.
And what if one looks to the morrow? How can one visualize the future of space communication? It is not altogether simple to answer this question. However, one prediction can be made boldly, without fear of falling into error: in the next decade the rate of development of space communication facilities will become truly astounding. ( Moscow, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta (in Russian), No. 29, July 1976, p. 24. Article by L. Fedorov, engineer, "Radio Bridges in Space".)
Also in July, the Intercosmos program was given attention in Pravda in a review of an article by V. Gubarev in which he stated "an automatic all-purpose orbital station . . . could appear above the planet in the next few months. A new generation of satellites is being born, and one intercosmos is currently passing the scientific baton to another." About the same time and on the same topic, B. Konovalov wrote:
The "Interkosmos-16" is the last in the series of small satellites. Henceforth automated universal orbital stations—satellites of the second generation—will be sent into space. They will be greater in weight and will make it possible to carry out broader many-sided experiments. The intergovernmental agreement of the socialist countries on cooperation in the investigation and utilization of space for peaceful purposes gives the "Interkosmos" program a new technical base. In the future we will see not only satellites, but also manned ships with international crews. (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), July 29, 1976, p. 6 [Article by B. Konovalov, "Instruments Look at the Sun"].)
In addition, in August 1976, Izvestiya carried the text of an interview with V. S. Avduyevskiy in which he made the following forecasts regarding orbital stations.
The creation of orbital stations is the main path in the development of Soviet cosmonautics. Step-by-step we are bringing circumterrestrial space alive by means of these space laboratories. On the one hand, they enable us to carry out scientific, technical and economic investigations on a broad front, and on the other—clarify the possibilities of man in spaceflight and gradually increase the duration in space.
An orbital station is an ideal platform for carrying out astronomical observations. The progress of modern astronomy is determined primarily by an investigation of precisely those regions of the spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations which are absorbed by the earth's atmosphere. And in optical astronomy surface telescopes have evidently reached the limit of their technical possibilities.
Here the future is also linked to the mastery of space. Stations of the "Salyut" series have already carried gamma-ray, x-ray and IR telescopes. These investigations are very promising.
Question. In the immediate future will there be an increase in the size of orbital stations and the number of crew members and how will their appearance change?
Answer. Without question, as time passes orbital stations will become larger and more comfortable, but for the time being this remains an open question. In my opinion, at the present stage in the development of cosmonautics it would be undesirable to have larger stations. Indeed, we are now at such a stage when we are only defining the range of problems which can be delegated to space technology, a stage in which we are perfecting methods for interpreting the results of observations from space. Therefore, now it is evidently more advantageous to use relatively small, relatively cheap and at the same time modern stations of the "Salyut" type which afford a possibility for widely varying the scientific program and concentrating attention on individual highly important directions. ( Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Aug. 7, 1976, p. 2. [Interview with V. S. Avduyevskiy, "Month of Weightlessness"].)
A question concerning the prospects for the future utilization of orbital stations was answered by G. I. Petrov in an interview reported on September 3, 1976.
Modern orbital stations are designed for flight with a crew of two or three people. The high degree of automation of the apparatus on board and of the control systems enables them to conduct a considerable complex of experiments. The work of these stations, both in the piloted and in the automatic modes, amounts to many months.
In time, I suppose, it will become expedient to build stations designed for years and even decades of service with interchangeable crews comprised of 20 to 30 people. The probable development of super-large multi-purpose orbital complexes with crews of 100 or more people is in prospect.
Naturally, such stations will have to be assembled in orbit from sections and blocks brought from earth by relatively small rockets. Each section is conceived as a laboratory with a definite purpose with equipment which after the assembly of the station will go as a constituent part into the general power-supply and life-support systems. The most expedient geometrical shape of a standard station is the sphere or cylinders. As the sections of such a shape have the least weight for a given useful volume, are convenient to assemble, and they fit well into the contours of the carrier rocket. It is easy to impart the necessary configuration to a station assembled from cylindrical and spherical units.
As for assembly technique, it is not necessary to equip each unit with its own motor installation. The joining of individual sections will be undertaken, for instance, by a special flying assembly apparatus, something like a space tug-crane [oranbuksirovshchik], controlled automatically from earth or from on board the orbital station. Finally, a cosmonaut can also go over to it in order to effect manual control. After the main tasks have been completed, the space tug will be used for correcting the station's orbit and for the maintenance of its exterior. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Sept. 3, 1976, p. 3 [Pravda correspondent's interview with Academician G. I. Petrov: "The High Road of Cosmonautics"].)
A report carried by the New York Times datelined Mosow, September 14, 1976 contained the following quotation.
"Astronauts from eight Communist-ruled nations will join Soviet fliers in space flights beginning in 1978," the official press agency, Tass, said, today. "They will orbit with the Russians in Soviet spaceships and space stations," Tass said.
According to Tass, dates were set during consultations here today to begin the training of future astronauts from Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania and Czechoslovakia.
The eight nations together with the Soviet Union are members of Intercosmos, an association of Communist-ruled nations that has already cooperated in launching 16 unmanned satellites.
To date. Soviet and American astronauts have been the only men in space. The first man in space was a Russian, Yuri A. Gagarin, who orbited the earth in 1961.
The joint space flights will take place from 1978-83, Tass said. The astronauts will train at the Yuri Gagarin center near Moscow, where Soviet astronauts train.
Extended use of Orbita for ensuring television broadcasting to Siberia and telephonic-telegraphic communications to remote regions of the U.S.S.R. was announced in December.
The principal directions in development of the national economy of the Tenth Five-Year Plan provide for the broader use of artificial earth satellites, especially for ensuring television broadcasting to different regions in Western and Eastern Siberia and for telephonic-telegraphic communication with remote regions of the country.
During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, plans call for television broadcasting to reach virtually all the population of our country. Taking into account the enormous extent of the territory, today the only technically visible way to solve this problem is the transmission of TV programs to simple and cheap receiving stations which it is economically feasible to set in small cities and populated places. It is obvious that in this case it is mandatory to use geostationary relay satellites. ( Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Dec. 1, 1976, p. 3 [Article by M. Fedorov and G. Markelov: "Space Telebridge is Operating."].)
1977
The first manned mission of 1977 provided for joint work in orbit of "Soyuz 24" and Salyut 5. Shatalov stated that the possibilities of using orbital spacecraft and stations are "inexhaustible."
Air Force Lieutenant General Vladimir Shatalov, who was present at the launching, described the flight as a routine one. The possibilities to use orbital spacecraft-ships and stations—both for scientific and economic purposes are inexhaustible, he said. For instance, the program of "Soyuz-24" provides for joint work in orbit with the station "Salyut-5" that was launched nearly eight months ago. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1730 GMT, Feb. 7, 1977.)
In March 1977, an Intersputnik agreement was signed in Moscow. One use of the system agreed upon was to be the transmission of the 1980 Moscow Olympics.
Agreement on cooperation was signed in Moscow today between Intersputnik, the international organization for space communications, and Oirt, the international organization for radio and television broadcasting. The agreement reflects the desire for expansion of the television and radio broadcasting exchange by using modern achievements in the field of communications, including artificial earth satellites. In particular, in the next few years, it is envisaged to expand the technical possibilities of the Intersputnik system, on the basis of deployment of multilayer satellites made in the USSR. These will be put on fixed earth orbit. Through these satellites, situated over the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans, along the Intersputnik system, it is envisaged that transmission will be organized of television and radio broadcasting programs from the 1980 Moscow Olympics. (Moscow, Domestic Service (in Russian) 1800 GMT, Mar. 11, 1977.)
A claim for the need for peaceful uses of outer space was made by Piradov at a session of the legal subcommittee of the U.N. committee.
Successes in space exploration become increasingly linked with the practical utilization of the achievements of cosmonautics for the purposes of economic, scientific and cultural development, i.e. for man's every-day needs. The achievements serve not only the peoples of those countries which directly conduct space research but all other peoples as well. Thus, the practical uses of outer space become property for the whole of mankind.
Aleksandr Piradov, representative of the USSR, emphasized in his speech at the session that it is necessary to do everything possible for outer space to remain an arena of peace, friendship and cooperation. "It appears important therefore that all countries adhere to the treaty of 1967 on the principles governing the activities of states in space. As is known, only 73 states have ratified the treaty or acceded to it," he said. (New York, Mar. 16, [1977] Tass.)
On the theme of international cooperation in space, Vereshchetin, deputy chairman of the "Intercosmos" Council of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., wrote:
International cooperation to one degree or other now covers the main spheres of
space exploration and their practical application. Yet until recently this did not involve manned flights. The successful realization of the Soviet-American "Soyuz-Apollo" project has filled the gap.
A new important step will be participation of citizens of socialist countries in
manned flights aboard Soviet-made spaceships and stations.
Our international cooperation in space exploration increasingly assumes a long term nature. For instance, socialist countries elaborated for a long perspective, catalogues of problems for a joint solution, the scientist points out. There is a programme of long-term cooperation with France which covers many sections of space exploration. A possibility of further joint manned flights with the United States of America is being negotiated.
As is noted in documents of the 25th CPSU Congress, space exploration is among
the problems affecting the interests of the whole of mankind—the problem which in the long run will be exerting an ever more noticeable influence on the life of every people, the whole system of international relations. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 0600 GMT, April 12, 1977.)
In April, comments were made by Feoktistov concerning the development of cosmonautics in the near future and about the possibility of space settlements in an interview with correspondent V. Golovachev.
Question. How do you picture the development of cosmonautics in the immediate future?
Answer. Above all, the development of research and work in the interests of the national economy. Cosmonautics is already gradually becoming a sector of the national economy. Communications satellites play an important role. The meteor weather satellites are having a tangible effect. Work is being developed on monitoring the earth's surface from space. Surveys from satellites and orbiting stations in space, for example, help geologists in search of minerals, fishermen, agricultural workers, glaciologists, irrigators and specialists in many sectors of the national economy. . . . The direct return from cosmonautics can already be measured in tens and hundreds of millions of rubles. And this contribution will increase.
In addition we are studying the possibility of carrying out various technological operations in space—obtaining super pure substances, semiconductors, crystals. . . . Such orbiting production may prove very important to the national economy in the future.
I feel it is quite possible that at some time, perhaps within our lifetime, the construction of plants with unique technology will begin in space. It may be possible to put environmentally harmful enterprises into space—for example those enterprises which produce great quantities of heat (the problem of the earth's energy balance is very serious). . . .
Another direction in the development of cosmonautics is research into circumterrestrial and circumsolar space and the nearest planets. That is, man must get his bearings in the environs of the home where he lives. This is chiefly a task for automatic machines.
In my view, however, the most interesting results should be expected from investigating the universe. This is the third direction. This research will obviously be conducted both from onboard orbiting stations and in automatic astrophysical laboratories.
To speak of design developments, there is the interesting task of creating large long-term orbiting complexes.
Interplanetary ships will undoubtedly be constructed in the future. Man no longer feels himself simply an inhabitant of Earth but also of the entire solar system. It would be interesting, for example, to go into orbit around Venus and set up a station there for an in-depth study of this planet. ... By that time, however, still more interesting ideas may have emerged.
Question. And how do you feel about space settlements—small cities with a population between a few thousand and tens of thousands of people?
Answer. Such settlements are possible in principle. There is no doubt about it. I believe they will appear in time. One of the possible reasons for their emergence will be if developing industry affects the biosphere on a menacing scale. . . . Who knows, perhaps an increase of a few more percent in the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will prove too much for the biosphere. And then the launching of production into space will be inevitable, and settlements too. I repeat: Technically this is, on the whole, feasible, and we know how to go about it and what to do. ...
Of course, such a project would be incredibly costly. However, scientific and technical progress is now so rapid that even this problem may be resolved more quickly than it is possible to suppose today. What seemed fantastic yesterday is a firm part of our lives today. Look: Quite recently computers were considered a miracle of technology. But now schoolchildren frequently use a pocket calculator behind the math teacher s back.. . .
It would be expedient to construct space settlements quite far from Earth—at distances of the order of tens of thousands of kilometers. The delivery of materials to them and the installation of structures—all this entails great difficulties (Moscow, Trud (in Russian), Apr. 12, 1977, p. 3.)
A similar question was asked of Shatalov, and though his answer was essentially the same, it had a slightly different emphasis.
Question. Vladimir Aleksandrovich, how do you see the immediate future of cosmonautics?
Answer. Clearly other planets will for the moment remain the province of auto matic craft. Manned flights will be around the earth and will increasingly be of specific practical benefit. The 25th CPSU Congress decisions directly show the way ... to continue the study and conquest of space, and to expand research for the employment of space means in studying Earth's natural resources, in meteorology, oceanology, navigation, communications, and for other needs of the national economy.
Manned ships and stations will work side by side with automatic satellites in resolving these tasks. The length of service of orbital stations will gradually begin to increase and their research potential will grow broader. Their work will be both automatic and manned. When cosmonauts are on board adjustment and repair work can be carried out on a broad scale, and the life of the station can be substantially prolonged.
Unquestionably international cooperation in space research must be strengthened and the number of countries participating in it must increase. Life has convincingly shown that space can successfully serve the welfare of all peoples on our planet (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Apr. 12, 1977, morning edition, p. 2.)
In May, the United States and the Soviet Union announced an agreement on operating space stations in the 1980's. The announcement was made simultaneously by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration in Washington and the Soviet Academy of Science in Moscow. The story that appeared in the New York Times (May 18, 1977) follows.
The United States and the Soviet Union announced Monday an agreement to begin discussions that could lead to the operation of the first international space station sometime in the 1980's.
The announcement was made simultaneously by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration in Washington and the Soviet Academy of Sciences in Moscow. The agreement was negotiated in meetings between American and Soviet scientists in Washington last November.
Under the arrangement, space experts from both nations are to begin in the next month discussions along three lines: the feasibility of a large manned Soviet-American laboratory in earth orbit, ways to use the American space shuttle in such an operation and the types of scientific experiments and other operational aspects of such a mission.
N.A.S.A. spokesmen in Washington emphasized Monday night that the agreement does not bind either side to go through with such an endeavor.
"This is a feasibility-type thing with no firm plans other than to discuss such possibilities, the spokesman said in a telephone interview. "There's nothing in the agreement that says we're absolutely going to do this."
But it was a somewhat similar understanding that set in motion the negotiations and planning that led to the first joint manned space mission between the two countries in July 1975. In that earth-orbiting mission an American Apollo spacecraft, with three astronauts on board, linked up with the Soviet Soyuz, carrying two astronauts.
In considering future joint missions, American and Soviet space leaders are understood to have discussed the possibility of using the American shuttle, which is now under development, to ferry people and supplies to the Soviet Salyut. A number of Salyuts, which are small space stations, have been orbited by the Soviet Union in recent years and have been the centerpieces of most Soviet space activity in this decade.
Since the space shuttle is not expected to be ready for full operations until 1980 at the earliest, it is unlikely that the kind of joint mission being discussed would come about for four or five years, according to space administration officials.
Signing the agreement for the United States was Dr. Alan M. Lovelace, acting administrator of N.A.S.A., and for the Soviet Union, Anatoly P. Aleksanrov, president of the Soviet Academy of Sciences.
The following article on heat-regulating surfaces on spacecraft was abstracted in the May, 1977 issue of the Moscow University Herald:
The heat-regulating surfacing's applied to the external surfaces of spacecraft are intended for maintaining a definite thermal regime of the spacecraft by establishing a balance between heat release within the ship, the energy absorbed by it from space and the energy re-emitted into space. The paper cited above gives a model of a heat-regulating surfacing of the enamel-ceramic type which has been damaged under the influence of fluxes of charged particles and a method is proposed for computing the change in the reflective properties of the surfacing's. The authors discuss the limits of applicability and the errors of the proposed method. Conclusions are drawn concerning the possibility of computing the behavior of the spectral reflectivity of the heat-regulating surfaces in the process of their laboratory and field tests. It is shown that the method described here, within the framework of the adopted model, makes it possible to seek the absorption index for the surfacing on the basis of the experimentally measured values of reflectivity and to calculate the behavior of spectral reflectivity of the surfacing's under the influence of corpuscular radiation. (Changes in Reflectivity of Spacecraft Heat-Regulating Surfaces, Moscow, Vestnick Moskovskogo Universiteta, Seriya Fizika, Astronomiya (in Russian), vol. 18, No. 5, 1977, pp. 15-24.) [Article by V. P. Borodulin and N. I. Karpov, Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics, "Investigation of Changes in the Reflectivity of Heat-Regulating Surfacings of Spacecraft Under Influence of Corpuscular Radiation."]
In June, Georgi Petrov commented about multiple use space stations, exploration of Jupiter, and solar power stations.
Establishment of systems of multiple use of space equipment is one of the possible trends of further development of cosmonautics, believes well-known Soviet scientist academician Georgi Petrov. In an interview to a Pravda correspondent, published in the newspaper today, he pointed out that multiple use systems may be particularly productive, combined with orbital stations aboard which man can work for some time, and then having taken exploration materials to return to earth.
To understand the origin of the sun is one of the main objectives of space exploration, the scientist believes. From this point of view, he said, it is particularly necessary to draw attention to the study of the solid substance scattered in the interplanetary space. Specifically, it is very important to get the undamaged primary substance of meteorites.
In the scientist's opinion, particularly close attention should be paid to exploration of Jupiter. It is a very important and difficult task to introduce a space vehicle into the atmosphere of Jupiter. Such an experiment for its significance could be compared with the historic voyages of the Soviet "Venus" automatic stations.
Speaking about the contribution of cosmonautics into scientific-technical progress, the scientist emphasized that space communication, space meteorology have already brought tangible practical results. Exploration of earth's natural resources from outer space is more confidently developing.
The use of energy resources of outer space is also quite feasible, Petrov said. Establishment of a network of helio-stations in the near-earth orbits and elaboration of methods of energy transfer to the earth with the help of a laser beam or a high-frequency emission open up fascinating prospects for the earth's energetics. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 0754 GMT, June 13, 1977.)
Remarks in an abstract of an article by R. Svoren dealt with attempts to establish contacts with extraterrestrial civilizations, and included a comment regarding the progress in exoatmospheric astronomy.
At the Moscow House of Scientists there was recently a meeting with a group of scientists who told of different aspects of the problem of establishing contacts with extraterrestrial civilizations. Flier-Cosmonaut V. Sevast'yanov noted that during his spaceflight there were no evidences of extraterrestrial life; he also noted that American astronauts likewise failed to observe anything suggesting such life [despite rumors that they had]. A probabilistic approach to the question as to whether extraterrestrial civilizations exist was applied long ago, but unfortunately, during recent years nothing has happened which would make possible a more precise computation of the probability of the existence of reasoning life in the universe. It was noted that the progress in exoatmospheric astronomy can answer the question as to how frequently stars have planetary systems. Only one astronomer has reported the discovery of a star with a planetary system. And this is in the doubtful category. If it were possible to put a telescope with a mirror diameter of more than 2 m beyond the limits of the earth's atmosphere, it would be possible to see directly whether many stars in our microregion of the Galaxy have planets. One of the principal reports at the meeting was by N. Kardashov, a scientific specialist at the Space Research Institute. He told of attempts to pick up radio signals from other planets. Such attempts have been long ago undertaken in different countries using different radioastronomical systems and instruments. But the system which he described merits special attention. It was created specially for monitoring cosmic ether, in order to seek out ordered signals in space which with a high probability could be attributed to an extraterrestrial civilization. The basic idea is to use several receivers operating in the centimeter range, situated at very great distances from one another. For the time being three such receiving centers have been established: in the Caucasus, on Kamchatka and in the Pamirs. All the receivers operate synchronously and a signal is not considered to be received unless it has arrived simultaneously at all three receivers. And if a "rational" signal is received in such a spaced receiving system, it can be said with assurance that it is of nonterrestrial origin. [Article by R. Svoren', "Speculations With Hope."] (Moscow, Nauka I Zhizn' (in Russian), No. 6, 1976, pp. 63-65.)
Meteorological satellites continued to be praised in September. The direction of the use and the importance of these satellites was stated in an article by L. Aleksandrov carried in Izvestiya. Excerpts are given.
Since February 1967 the "Meteor" meteorological system has been operating in our country. Two or three "Meteor" satellites are constantly working in orbit; twice a day they scan our planet, transmit the collected information, which is used by our weather service and which after processing is directed to other countries. At the same time, we are using information received from American satellites. Now, in essence, a world weather service is being established which is making active use of meteorological satellites. Cooperation is intensively proceeding in the field of space meteorology, work being done by scientists of the socialist countries within the framework of the "Interkosmos" program.
The new direction in the use of satellites is intensively developing. The technical difficulties in the interpretation of space images are being successfully overcome. And there is no need to be a prophet in order to assert that in the years immediately ahead these investigations will pass from the stage of experiments into everyday, working practices. In addition to satellites of the "Meteor" type, use will be made of geostationary vehicles and meteorological satellites which will make possible regular and routine taking of photographs of the earth under identical illumination conditions. Mankind will soon receive an effective method for observing the state of the environment on our planet. These data can be used extensively in the national economy. This can give a maximum effect in the economy of the socialist countries. (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Sept. 30, 1977, p. 5.) [Article by L. Aleksandrov, "Weather Watch of the Planet."]
Two Soviet cosmonauts speculated on some future directions of the space program within the next decade. Particular emphasis was placed on the generation of electricity from space.
By the end of the next decade, in the opinion of some scientists, there may be an apparatus with an optical spectrozonal telescope and a powerful radar station for investigating natural resources and monitoring the environment. For investigating thermal processes, such as detecting the centers of fires, there will be a telescope with an IR detector. The center of a fire no bigger than an automobile will be registered in a few minutes regardless of the time of day or weather. Indeed, spacecraft parked in a stationary orbit can become the principal centralized system for monitoring the environment. Titov and Gor'kov continue with exposition of some ultra advances which might be practical with respect to communication, navigation and the postal service, and then examine the possibility of using satellites for producing electric power. One such project calls for use of a large satellite with a mass of about 18,000 tons. Its solar cells would produce a power of 5 billion watts. It is not yet known how such a mass would be put into orbit or how the solar energy would be converted into electric power. Some propose use of solar cells, whereas others consider it desirable to create an apparatus with solar heating of the working body. Perhaps it would be put into a stationary orbit, since there the flux of solar energy is greater. Probably the creation of satellites for supplying power to the earth will proceed in stages as experience is accumulated in the assembly and operation of large-scale structures in space. Evidently, the first step will be the creation of a satellite for supplying electric power to other space objects. It will dock to the satellite-user or will transmit energy to several objects in the form of laser radiation. Then it will be possible to develop a larger scale satellite for supplying electricity to surface objects. Electromagnetic oscillations can be used for transmitting power over a distance. Scientists have long known how to solve this problem. Lasers have great capacity for uninterrupted transmission of energy to the earth. Another proposal is to use giant mirrors in circumterrestrial orbit for the reflection of the sunlight onto the night side of the planet. This could provide light exceeding by a factor of 10-100 the light of the full moon. Such a system can be of advantage in agriculture so that sowing and harvesting can be carried on around-the-clock. An artificial sun could also be created and this might increase agricultural production by 3-5 percent. (Some Future Possibilities in Space, Moscow, Aviatsiya I Kosmonavtika (in Russian), No. 10, 1977, pp. 20-22. [Article by Flier-Cosmonaut U.S.S.R. G. Titov and V. Gor'kov, "Glancing Into Future"].)
Nikolay Rukavishnikov, another Soviet cosmonaut, speculated on the future role of cosmonautics in the space program.
Cosmonaut Nikolay Rukavishnikov was asked the following questions: What new possibilities do spacecraft afford for scientific research in general and for investigations of the earth and its natural resources? What are the comparative possibilities of manned and automatic spacecraft in carrying out scientific investigations? What fields of specialization should a cosmonaut have for carrying out scientific experiments? What is the role of the creative activity of a cosmonaut in scientific research? How do spaceflight conditions influence the creative elements of scientific activity? What means can be used in increasing the efficiency of scientific research in space? His extensive remarks included the following. Very unusual possibilities are being afforded for use of optical telescopes in space. There is also no doubt that both manned and unmanned spacecraft will land on the surfaces of other planets. Studies of the earth's surface are and will yield the most immediate benefits to mankind. The earth as a planet can be studied, including its upper atmosphere, gravity field, continental drift and amount of received and reflected sunlight . . . The cost of constructing unmanned spaceships if far less than for a manned ship and they are more efficient, since the absence of a crew enables more instrumentation to be carried. For unmanned ships the surface control system need not be so complex. It is far easier to bear the loss of an unmanned ship than a manned one. Probably the best type of ship is one which is automatic but which is periodically visited for maintenance and for special research projects. Unmanned ships are indispensable for investigations where man cannot tread, such as on the surface of Venus. But there are instances when man is more effective than machine . . . With an increase in the number of participants on a space expedition there will be a special flight crew and a group of scientists who are specialists in their respective fields. At the present time the cosmonaut must be bifunctional. Even so, the results have been good . . . The creative activity of a cosmonaut is especially necessary in cases of experiments whose results cannot be foreseen, when during the course of the experiment there is a need for changing the method for executing the experiment ... A major means for increasing efficiency in space work is a reduction in unproductive time spent in flight on the servicing of instruments and equipment. Control and servicing operations must be automated to the highest degree possible . . . (Role of Cosmonaut in Space Experiments, Moscow, Priroda (in Russian), No.
10, 1977, pp. 137-141 [Article by N. N. Rukavishnikov, "The Cosmonaut's Role in Space Scientific Experiments"].)
In October Pravda carried the text of an interview with R. Z. Sagdeyev, director of the U.S.S.R.'s Academy of Sciences Institute of Space Research. In examples of questions and replies that follow it is interesting to note his comments on the importance of basic research.
Question. In what direction, in your opinion, should the space effort be primarily
directed, and what tasks should be resolved?
Answer. I believe that, as previously, the bulk of scientific research will be con ducted in the earth orbits in which the first satellites flew. But we will gradually have to make the transition from individual experiments to comprehensive programs for fundamental research.
The most progressive path in research outside the limits of the earth's gravity has proved to be that of using automatic machines—the path begun by our Lunas, Veneras and Mars. By following it U.S. scientists have achieved success in studying Jupiter with the help of the Pioneer automatic stations and Mars with the help of the Viking apparatuses. At any rate in our century this method of studying the solar system will undoubtedly remain the most rational one.
Question. How broad must the front of planetary research be? Is it necessary, for example, to organize research as detailed as that which we conduct on earth on the Moon, Mars or Vensus?
Answer. I believe that we have not yet reached the stage in studying the planets, even those nearest to us, when we can raise the question of how far we should advance in their systematic investigation. Many unresolved problems still exist here.
In the first 20 years of the space age, flights to the Moon and the planets predominated to some extent. In my opinion, problems of investigating distant space with methods of satellite astronomy, which is only now taking its first steps, are also coming to the fore today. So far it has hardly provided any information on such objects, for example, as quasars. It seems that astronomical instruments, which will perhaps even surpass ground telescopes in terms of precision, will be working in orbit already in the next decade.
Question. What experiments in space strike you as most attractive?
Answer. Research in the x-ray and gamma diapasons of the processes taking place in the depths of the universe is of great interest. This hard electromagnetic radiation usually arises out of some kind of great cataclysm or explosion. As a specialist in plasma physics—plasma being the hottest state of matter—1 am undoubtedly interested in how its extreme states are achieved in nature on a vast scale. We may encounter quite new phenomena here, which lie on the boundaries of plasma physics and gravitation theory.
Using circumterrestrial space as a giant natural laboratory, we acquire the possibility of conducting experiments with plasma. Here, in addition to investigating the processes occurring in the natural state, we can also create new ones with the help of artifical additives—for example, by "injecting" beams of charged particles. These experiments have been named active. They will undoubtedly be conducted widely in the next decade. For we have already learned how, by affecting locally particular sectors of the magnetosphere and ionosphere, to create processes similar to those which occur from time to time in nature and which are observed in the form of magnetic storms or polar auroras.
The possibility cannot be excluded that in the future mankind will be faced with the stern necessity of using such methods, for example, in order to insure the necessary chemical composition of the atmosphere. Problems already exist, such as the fall in the atmosphere's ozone content and, on the other hand, the increase in apparently secondary minor constituents which, as it turns out, play an important role in both the chemical and the radiation balance of our planet's air envelope.
Study of Jupiter's magnetosphere appears exceptionally attractive. It is like the earth's, but at the same time in terms of the strength of the magnetic field and the intensity of the radiation belts it resembles to a considerable degree the magnetosphere of pulsars—rapidly rotating neutron stars. Thus the interests of two sciences—circumterrestrial geophysics and astrophysics—merge here. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Oct. 4, 1977, p. 3.)
The last question in this interview dealt with the opinion of Sagdeyev of the success of international cooperation in space research and his answer was that "globality—that inalienable property of space research—creates by its very essence broad preconditions for international cooperation."
In a speech given at a meeting to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the launch of the first Sputnik Academician Petrov said:
Looking into the future, one can say that automatic devices in space, satellites and automatic stations will carry out more and more complex functions in research into space near earth, into links between the sun and the earth, the moon and the planets of the solar system, and will penetrate further and further into the reaches of the universe. Launches of biological satellites, both in the interest of working on fundamental problems of space biology and to resolve issues connected with the preparation for long manned space flights will continue. Orbiting stations will carry out long flights, receiving transportation vessels with crews of cosmonauts and unpiloted craft for delivery of cargo and supplementing reserves of fuel and life-support systems. (Moscow, Domestic Service (in Russian), 1405 GMT, Oct. 11, 1977.)
Tass International Service carried a story in Russian on October 24 that the building of a second generation long-distance laser satellite rangefinder would begin in 1978. The new rangefinder would operate in daylight while the present (1977) one operates only at night. "Such instruments are in operation at artificial satellite observation stations in the Polish People's Republic, the Arab Republic of Egypt, Bolivia, India, and Cuba."
An announcement made in December 1977, about the delta autonomous navigational system carried on Salyut 6. In an interview Valeriy Mikhaylovich said:
The delta autonomous navigational system, as its name implies, makes it possible to determine the orbit directly on board the station itself without the participation of earth-based complexes and without the participation of earth-based radio equipment. This is what distinguishes the function of the delta system from the work of earth-based tracking stations. According to the measurements of altitude carried out on the station, the delta system itself determines the elements of the orbit without the participation of earth-based complexes. It does this autonomously. Moreover, it does so with a sufficiently high degree of accuracy.
Question. Why is this necessary if the orbit is already known to earth?
Answer. It is necessary so that in the future it may be possible to function without the work of earth-based complexes and to be able to completely determine the orbit with only the help of the delta system. . . .
The delta system is now going through its final stages of development, and in the future it will be able to insure the automatic servicing of both the crew and the work of the station as a whole without resorting to the aid of earth-based resources. (Moscow, Domestic Service (in Russian), 1900 GMT, Dec. 15, 1977.)
Commenting on improvements in spacecraft technology, A. Pokrovskiy stated:
On the present-day station the scientific equipment for conducting research in the field of astrophysics, the study of earth resources and technical and technological experiments was also renovated. The automatic flight system was also improved. And part of the equipment which was once experimental has become permanent. I have in mind, for example, the onboard teletype "Stroka," the system for regenerating water from the condensate of the station's atmospheric vapor, and the economical orientation system. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Dec. 14, 1977, p. 2.)
Biological and medical experiments on Salyut 6 were elaborated on in December issues of Pravda and Izvestiya.
On Friday, Romanenko and Grechko began three types of medical investigation which in the future will be repeated so that the physicians will have material for comparison. The bicycle-type erogmeter is not only a physical trainer, but also a medical instrument. Using this apparatus the crew during the medical investigation carries out tests with a carefully measured physical load. The cosmonaut spins the pedals with a velocity of 60 rpm for a period of five minutes. The loads are 750 kgm. By means of the "Polinom-2m" instrument it is possible to register and transmit to the earth data on the pulse rate, respiration, arterial pressure, data on the minute volume of circulation, oscillations of the chest cavity due to cardiac contractions etc.
Using this same "Polinom-2m" an electrocardiogram is registered for each of the cosmonauts from 12 leads, as under terrestrial conditions, in clinics.
The third type of examination which the cosmonauts began is a measurement of the volume of the lower leg. In space, due to the fact that "life is easy" (it is not necessary to overcome terrestrial gravity), there is some decrease in the volume of the so-called antigravitational muscles, especially in the legs. The physicians want to monitor this process. Depending on the data it is possible to recommend some intensity of the physical exercises which the cosmonauts have already begun to perform regularly. ( Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Dec. 18, 1977, p. 2. [Article bv Boris Konovalov: "A Week in Space Orbit."]
Biologial experiments are continuing. The cosmonauts are observing the development of amphibians on board the station. The dynamics of the growth of Chlorella under the spaceflight conditions are being studied.
Tests are being conducted on the working capability of a device that monitors the effect of weightlessness on the kinetics of cell division in microorganisms. Using this device the first French-Soviet biological experiment on a manned space vehicle is being conducted. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Dec. 27, 1977, p. 1.)
Worth noting was a story carried in the New York Times on December 27, 1977.
Moscow (UPI).-The lofting of two astronauts into space two weeks ago is part of a Soviet effort to set up a permanent scientific space station, Tass, the official Soviet press agency, said today.
The astronauts, Yuri Romanenko and Georgi Grechko, were sent into space Dec. 10 aboard Soyuz 26. They linked up with the Salyut 6 station, where they inspected malfunctioning docking equipment and walked in space.
"The aim of the work by the scientists and cosmonauts is not separate or unique experiments, but the establishment of a permanently functioning scientific watch in orbit, a Tass dispatch said. The agency said that Soviet space designers had been trying to create convenient and comfortable conditions aboard space stations.
"Salyut 6 is making in this sense a noticeable technological contribution to cosmonauts, Tass said. It said some of the key improvements have been a double-docking system allowing two simultaneous linkups with a space station.
Another improvement is an "automatic orientation system" that eliminates much of the tedious work of keeping the station on its course, Tass said, adding that life is not luxurious aboard Soyuz 26. Tass said that the astronauts' day was 15 hours starting at 8 A.M. and ending at 11 P.M.
1978
The Soyuz 27 spacecraft and its crew was discussed in a January 10, 1978 Tass report.
Moscow , January 10, Tass.—Tass special correspondent Nikolay Zhelezhnov re-
ports from the Baykonur space launching site:
The manned spacecraft "Soyuz-27" was launched from the Baykonur launching site today into an orbit close to that in which the scientific station "Salyut-6" with Cosmonauts Yuriy Romanenko and Georgiy Grechko on board, has been working for a month now.
The sixth Soviet orbital station which is now in orbit together with the "Soyuz-26 transport vehicle is in many ways an experimental spacecraft, said Air Force Lieutenant-General Vladimir Shatalov, one of the leaders of the Soviet space programme. New technical ideas will be tested during its flight. In particular, it is fitted with two docking units which permits of much more effective programmes of the expeditions. It opens up the possibility for the stations to operate simultaneously with two transport vehicles, a more reasonable and economical conduct of the operations to replace the crews, the provision of additional scientific equipment and food stocks for the expedition. Besides, as has been announced already, the Romanenko-Grechko expedition is provided with space suits to enable the crew to work in outer space for several hours to conduct preventive, repair and research work outside the space vehicle. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1140 GMT, Jan. 12, 1978.)
Commenting of the future roles of space stations, V. Aksenov stated:
From the events of this fantastic evening I see a great and long road into the future. There will be permanently operating orbital stations with exchangeable crews. I see the work of cosmonauts for the needs of science and the national economy. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Jan. 12, 1978.)
Earlier, Constantin Petrovich had commented on the future of the Soviet space program.
In response to the question as to how he visualizes the future of orbital stations, Konstantin Petrovich answers that first of all their main purpose as scientific laboratories will persist and be developed. Biomedical investigations will be continued aboard orbital stations in order to clarify how long man can spend in space without damage to his health. Investigation of the earth's natural resources from orbit will acquire ever-greater importance. Naturally, extensive use will be made of the unique possibilities of orbital laboratories for exoatmospheric observations of the universe.
With time technological experiments can lead to the creation of entire enterprises in orbit for the production of valuable substances and articles under conditions of a space vacuum and weightlessness. Orbital stations can become a base also for broader work in space. One of the promising directions is the creation of power plants capable of assimilating solar energy so abundant in space and transmitting it in transformed form for use on the earth. The dimensions of such power plants will not be reckoned in meters, but in kilometers; these will be structures which are enormous in comparison with present-day concepts. It is advantageous to put powerful solar electric power stations into a geostationary orbit at a distance of 36,000 km from the earth's surface. But economically it would be more advantageous to put them into low orbits, such as that in which the "Salyut" is flying. And then the plant could be towed in a definite segment of a geostationary orbit so that power could be conveniently transmitted to different regions on our planet.
Professor Feoktistov says: "The construction of special structures in circumterrestrial space for weather control can be extremely promising. Employing them it will be possible to use part of the solar energy which for the time being uselessly passes
by our planet and use it for example in suppressing cyclones which are forming. This sort of structure will be of an enormous size and will weigh hundreds of thousands of tons. But the first step in their creation is orbital stations. The future is being laid today. (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Dec. 14, 1977.)
A January 14, 1978 Izvestiya article carried the following commentaries about biomedical work in space.
In one of the television communication sessions we saw "Pamir-1"—Vladimir Dzhanibekov, shrouded in wires from different sensors and motionless in the "Chibis" suit. The suit consists of pants with an attached top. The suit is put on the lower half of the body, is sealed and a reduced pressure is created. Because of this the blood from the upper half of the body seemingly is forced into the lower half of the body and this for a definite time simulates the conditions of terrestrial gravitation. A comparison of the picture of distribution of the blood in a cosmonaut during ordinary exposure to weightlessness and with creation of reduced pressure in the lower half of the body gives physicians a possibility of judging how the adaptation process is going and what changes it causes in the cardiovascular system. (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Jan. 14, 1978.)
On January 16, 1978, Tass carried the following account of the Salyut 6 complex comprised of three space modules.
Moscow , January 16 Tass.—A research complex consisting of three spacecraft has been established in orbit for the first time. General Valdimir Shatalov writes in the newspaper Vozdushnyy Transport (Air Transport) about the link-up of two Soviet piloted spaceships of the "Soyuz" type with the orbital scientific station "Salyut-6".
General Shatalov, who is in charge of the training of Soviet cosmonauts, says in the newspaper that for the first time the Soviet cosmonauts had to assemble in orbit a unique system of three objects that were put into orbit at different times. From the technical point of view, the specialists were interested in the way the joined elements would behave themselves" in such a big dynamic system. The entire complex was about 30 metres long and weighed over 32 tons. Hence, the loads on the joined elements were rather great.
"The establishment of a new orbital complex is not just a matter of increasing the mass of a space system, not just a matter of increasing artificially the useful volume or the number of crew members," the article says. "We take a broader view of the problem. Practically this is a new step in the exploration of outer space with the help of manned ships, a step opening up beckoning prospects."
Thus an opportunity has been created for replenishing the supplies of an orbital station, for supplying it with fuel, oxygen, food, photo and cine facilities, scientific and technical equipment. This can be done with the help of transport ships, manned or unmanned.
Moreover, it is possible to take from board the station in orbit some materials which have to be immediately processed and analysed on the ground before some decisions are made, or to take to the station raw materials for staging technological experiments and return final products to earth. In this way we can select some material for analysis on the ground without interrupting the program in hand, Vladimir Shatalov writes.
Usually, all the scientific apparatus required for a space mission and all supplies
go to outer space aboard the station. This means that the station has to carry a maximum payload. Now we can revise our views as to the supplies the station has to take to outer space. We can arrange the transportation of apparatus and supplies to the orbiting station, when necessary, and thus make room for the more important sophisticated equipment on board. Moreover it will be possible to send to the station "narrow" specialists for staging some local experiments and then quickly returning to earth.
What is also important is that this experiment creates an opportunity for improving considerably the efficiency of scientific apparatus. Ideally instruments should operate round the clock. But two men on board cannot conduct continuous observations, say, of meteorological conditions on earth and weather data for fishermen and fliers, geologists and builders. The presence on board of another crew would help increase the observation time considerably. (Possibilities Arising From Salyut-6 Complex Explained, Moscow, Tass (in English), 0935 GMT, Jan. 16, 1978.)
The joint Soviet/French biological experiment "Cytos" was described in a January 14, 1978 Tass report. It was mentioned again in a January 15, 1978 Izvestiya article.
The joint biological experiment "Cytos" is being conducted on board the Salyut-6-Soyuz-26-Soyuz-27 space complex.
Professor Nefedov said a capsule with micro-organisms in a container worked out by Soviet designers was brought to the orbital station by Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Oleg Makarov on board the Soyuz-27 spaceship. On board the station the capsule was transferred to the "Cytos" instrument devised by French scientists and designers. A French thermostat makes it possible to permanently maintain an optimum temperature set by biologists.
Scientists of the two countries are very much interested in carrying out this experiment, since it will help study the effect of space flights factors on the kinetics of the cell division of micro-organisms, Nefedov emphasized. The experiments will give an opportunity to determine in a more accurate way the effect of space weightlessness and radiation factors on the organism. The experiment is also of much importance for understanding the processes of the growth and propagation of microbes in space flight conditions. (Moscow, Tass (in English), Jan. 14, 1978.)
"The objective of this experiment," stated the work director on the Soviet side, Professor Yu. G. Nefedov, is to trace the dynamics of development of living cells under spaceflight conditions. As the objects for investigation Soviet scientists selected Proteus cells (their "cousins" have already been in space more than once), where as the French colleagues headed by Professor Planel of Toulouse University selected a different representative of microorganisms—Paramecium. We hope to clarify whether space conditions exert an influence on the cell level. (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Jan. 15, 1978.)
Cosmonaut General Georgiy Beregovoy speculated on the development of permanent space stations with rotating crews as a result of the Salyut 6/Soyuz 26 and 27 program.
Moscow, January 18, Tass.—"The flight of the Salyut-6-Soyuz-26-Soyuz-27 orbital complex and the successful return of the visiting crew—Cosmonauts Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Oleg Makarov—back to earth are a new stage in the development of soviet cosmonautics," Cosmonaut Georgiy Beregovoy, head of the Yuriy Gagarin Cosmonauts Training Centre, told a Tass correspondent. He emphasized that the experiment is a major step towards creation of permanently functioning orbital stations with replaceable crews.
The crews of two spaceships, four cosmonauts, worked for five days on board the "Salyut-6" space station for the first time in the entire history of cosmonautics, General Beregovoy said. Important scientific research and medico-biological experiments have been carried out.
The availability of two docking units at the orbital station will make it possible to carry out shuttle operations. General Beregovoy said. The second docking unit opens up a prospect of making freight expeditions, delivering new research instrumentation to the station and replenishing food stocks as well as promptly transmitting scientific data back to earth.
Georgiy Beregovoy pointed out that there are still a good deal of problems on the way towards creation of orbital stations with replaceable crews, where scientific laboratories with tens of people will be functioning. "After Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Oleg Makarov returned to earth, the people in orbit became closer to us as if a great opposition occurred: at any moment the earth can come to the aid of its cosmonauts," he said. (Cosmonaut Training Chief on Importance of Salyut-6 Mission, Moscow, Tass (in English), 1432 GMT, Jan. 18, 1978.)
Photography conducted from Salyut 6 was discussed in January 20, 1978 Izvestiya article.
And now, indeed, these prospects have become a reality. Yuriy Romanenko and Georgiy Grechko have begun photographing the earth with the MKF-6M from the long-term "Salyut-6" orbital station.
"Whereas the work of the cosmonauts aboard 'Soyuz-22' was fundamentally of an
experimental and scientific character," said Ya. Ziman, Department Head at the Space Research Institute USSR Academy of Sciences, to the reporters, "it was decided to devote 90 percent of the picture taking on this flight to the needs of the national economy and only 10 percent to scientific research. Since every space photo is of interest to many branches of the national economy the information from space will be processed as needed by the 'Priroda' State Center and distributed to all interested parties for practical utilization."
Photography in different parts of the spectrum supplies additional information about the optical properties of the atmosphere and its pollution. It also has its own "depth vision" due to the fact that it photographs reflected solar radiation of different wavelengths which penetrates water to different depths. Thus, the pictures of Lake Baykal taken from "Soyuz-22" traced in depth the confluence of waters from the Selenga River and the lake. On the surface, the water was clean, but the other five levels revealed that the waters of the Selenga River bring into Lake Baykal pollution which increases with depth. ( Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Jan. 20, 1978, p.
4. [Article by B. Konovalov: "Rainbow Over the Planet"].)
Several commentaries on the automatic transport spacecraft Progress 1 appeared in the Soviet press in late January 1978.
The automatic spacecraft, which was designed on the basis of the Soyuz spacecraft, is intended to carry out transport operations to provide for the long-term functioning of orbiting scientific stations.
The aim of the launch of the Progress-1 spacecraft is to carry out tests and the integrated development of the design of onboard systems and equipment of the new automatic transport spacecraft; to carry out a docking with the Salyut-6-Soyuz-27 manned orbiting complex; to deliver on board the complex fuel for the motor installation and various cargo and also equipment apparatus and materials to provide for the life and activity of the crew, and to carry out scientific research and experiments. (Moscow, in English to South and Southeast Asia 1100 GMT Jan. 21, 1978.)
"Our science correspondent" has asked Dzherman Titov for details about the
Progress-1 spacecraft.
The automatic freight transport ship has been made on the basis of the Soyuz manned spaceships, said Dzherman Titov. It differs from the manned version by its fully automatic operation. After delivering its cargo to orbital stations the Progress-1 does not return to earth. Since it has no descent or landing systems this has made it possible to increase its carrying capacity. The job of Progress-1 is to supply cosmonauts for prolonged stays in space. "There are already designs for large extraterrestrial settlements, (?industrial) orbital stations and interplanetary terminals. Even a new term, astroengineering, has come into use, Dzherman Titov pointed out. Astroengineering involves the construction of large complexes outside the earth. A very serious discussion of practical projects has begun over the past few years. Yet they can be put into effect only if the (earthmen) learn to make and operate long-duration orbital stations. These stations should be able to receive freight transport ships many times and to carry out a wide range of scientific and technological problems. Progress-1 is the prototype of the freight transport ship of the future. (Progress-1 Launched, Moscow, Tass International Service (in Russian), 1337 GMT, Jan.20, 1978. Moscow—The Progress-1 automatic transport spacecraft was launched in the U.S.S.R. today.)
Under the programme of the flight; the members of the crew will carry on board the station the cargoes that were delivered and will carry to the transport ship the equipment that was used up. Operations for refueling the station will be carried out on command from the flight control centre and also directly by the crew.
To increase the capacities for bringing cargoes into the orbit and to cut the cost of transportation operations, the ship Progress-1 has been designed in such a way that its return to the earth was not envisaged.
After operations in the orbital scientific research complex are concluded, the ship Progress-1 will be separated from the station. It will enter dense layers of the atmosphere and will be burnt up. (Moscow, Tass (in English), Jan. 22, 1978.)
At noon today a cargo express approached the unoccupied docking unit of the Salyut-6 orbital station. This is the first flight of a new pilotless spacecraft, "Progress-1", which opened regular communication along the "earth-orbit" route.
This expedition is in many respects experimental. First of all, put to trial is a second-generation station opening new opportunities for replacing crews. The idea of constructing complex engineering units in orbit is in fact being put to trial. The task of the automatic cargo express is to blaze the trail for a reliable cargo bridge to ensure a years-long operation by orbital stations.
The "Progress-1" is intended to breath new life into orbital exploration programs, to make them more profitable, to raise the quality of orbital research in the interests of science and the national economy of the U.S.S.R. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1639 GMT, Jan. 22, 1978. Moscow, January 22, Tass—Tass special correspondent Nikolay Zheleznov reports.)
If one calculates them carefully, the "consumables" on the station comprise 20-30
kilograms a day. To carry supplies, for example, on a Soyuz with cosmonauts for two or three months of work would be complicated. And if for a year? In that case it's already 10 tons. It's impossible to do without a cargo transport craft such as Progress. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Jan. 23, 1978.)
(Yuriy Koltsov), a scientific employee of the USSR Academy of Sciences has commented on yesterday's Progress-l-Salyut-6-Soyuz-27 docking feat. He says that if one could take a close look at the space complex, one would find that Progress-1 outwardly resembles Soyuz-27. Indeed the automatic transport craft was created on the basis of the manned Soyuz craft. However, the crafts' different purposes determine the differences in their construction. What is Progress-1 like? Like Soyuz, it consists of three sections [otsek]. Only one of them has retained its former name as the propulsion unit-instrumentation section [priborno-agregatnyy]. This section has undergone substantial changes. The propulsion unit [dvigatelnaya ustanovkaj remained in it but automatic instruments were added.
Progress-1 has no descent module. Instead it has a fuel section in which fuel and the oxidizer [okislital] are brought up to the station. Modern orbiting stations such as the last Salyut, or the American Skylab, can operate in space fairly long. However, stores of food and water run out.
Chemical substances exhaust their capacity for restoring the atmosphere. Fuel is used to execute various maneuvers. More and more things that were once useful are turned into waste. For instance, 20-30 kilograms of various materials and substances are turned into useless cargo on the Salyut-6 every day.
Over the years kilograms turn into tons. The time comes when you have to part with the station forever, though all its systems are fully operational. All that has to be done is to renew the stores, this is why Progress-1 was created. Apart from fuel, hundreds of kilograms of various cargo were brought up to the station. They are situated in the third section—the cargo section. It is practically a space warehouse; it has many shelves. New scientific instruments are here, as are cassettes with belts for the on-board scientific instruments; there are balloons with water and new regenerators to maintain normal atmosphere in the station; there are receptacles [yemkost] for collecting various wastes and ejecting them into space; and there is a fresh change of linen and toilette paraphernalia. (Moscow, Domestic Service (in Russian), 0830 GMT, Jan. 23, 1978.)
Moscow , January 24, Tass.—In accordance with the programme of the exploration and use of outer space the Soviet Union launched an artificial earth satellite "Cosmos-954" into orbit around the earth on September 18, 1977. It carried aboard a small nuclear non-explosive unit intended as an energy source for the instruments on board. The energy unit was designed in such a way as to be fully destroyed and burnt in entering the dense layers of the atomosphere.
In the course of the satellite's flight outside the zone of radio-visibility of the Soviet tracking facilities it was sharply depressurized for reasons yet unknown on January 6 this year, with the result that the satellite began to come down in an unplanned regime. [Moscow Tass International Service in Russian at 2020 GMT on 24 January renders this phrase in Russian "nezaplanirovanym rezhime".]
According to the coordination computer center which kept constant track of the flight the "Cosmos-954" satellite entered the dense layers of the atmosphere over northern Canada and ceased to exist in the afternoon of January 24 this year. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 2028 GMT, Jan. 24, 1978.)
The unexpected reentry of Kosmos 954, a Soviet satellite with nuclear materials aboard received the following coverage in late January 1978.
Zbigniew Brzezinski, the U.S. President's national security adviser, confirmed in Washington today the statement issued by the Canadian Government that a small Soviet satellite with nuclear propulsion had come down in the area of the Great Slave Lake in northwest Canada. At a press conference he asserted that what was involved was a special satellite of the Cosmos series intended for military purposes. He also stated that two U.S. aircraft had been sent to the area where the satellite dropped to ascertain whether the fall had caused any contamination of the area, but he stressed that the danger from radiation was minimal. (Zagreb, Domestic Service (in Serbo-Croatian), 2100 GMT, Jan. 24, 1978.)
["The Day is Over" program, with Jan Zakrzewski and Jacek Maziarski]
[ZakrzewskiJ We have before us a communique published by Tass today.
On the afternoon of 24 January, the sputnik Cosmos-954 entered dense layers of the atmosphere over northern Canada and disintegrated. On 6 January during the flight of this satellite outside the range of radio-communication, due to so far unexplained reasons, a sudden depressurization occurred causing the sputnik to lower the trajectory of its flight. In accordance with the program of exploration and use of outer space, the sputnik was launched on 18 September 1977 into orbit around the earth. It had onboard a small nuclear unit which was non-explosive and was designed to power the equipment on board. The design of this energy unit was such
that its full destruction and disintegration would be triggered by entering the dense
layers of the atmosphere. So much for the communique.
[Maziarski] The sputnik which burned out today is numbered 954. Also today we saw the launching of Cosmos-986. Let us recall that the first Cosmos was launched on 16 March 1962. Recently Cosmos satellites were being launched at about weekly intervals. Their mass varies between 0.5 and 1.5 tons. What is their purpose? The answer to this question is secret, but it is well known that among other things they are engaged in meteorological research, in experiments in the upper atmosphere. It is also well known that the Cosmos satellites are capable of being recovered. The duration of the flight of Cosmos satellites depends on their orbit. Those which were placed in circular orbits round the earth in 1965 remain there for about 1,000 years. (Warsaw, Domestic Service (in Polish), 2000 GMT, Jan. 24, 1978.)
In a question/answer session, two cosmonauts from Salyut 6 discussed the manned space program in general.
[Special correspondent G. Lomanov report from flight control center: "At the
Svezdnyy Mooring"]
NEAR Moscow.—You do not need to be an expert to appreciate the scale and intensity of the present space program. Never mind the specialists, even we journalists have long since forgotten that some of the days on the calendar are printed in red. On Saturday in Svezdnyy Gorodok we met with V. Dzhanibekov and 0. Makarov who had completed their space journey and on Sunday morning we rushed to the flight control center for the docking of the Progress-1 transport spacecraft with the space station.
Immediately after the spacecraft was launched we asked Doctor of Technical Sciences and Pilot-Cosmonaut K.P. Fektistov to comment on the latest stage of the program—the inauguration of a freight route to Salyut-6.
"Even when work on the creation of long-term orbital stations was only beginning we realized that sooner or later freight routes would have to be laid in space," Konstantin Petrovich told us. "Now this time has come. In the future, when the number of crews and the duration of their work on the stations increases, the flow of freight on the earth to orbit route will increase correspondingly.
Why are transport craft of the "Progress" type needed? To answer this question let us look at all the "items of expenditure" which we cannot do without during work on an orbital station, there are hundreds of instruments and apparatuses on Salyut-6 and if you consider individual units and assemblies the number rises to thousands. The more components there are, the greater the likelihood that one of them will go out of commission—this is one of the rudiments of reliability theory.
During a long flight the need invariably arises to replace several assemblies and that means that new ones must be delivered on board.
From time to time it is necessary to correct the orbit of Salyut-6 and make it more convenient for the next craft to dock. Fuel is expended on corrections and other dynamic operations and it must be replaced. The cosmonauts throw garbage and waste into open space through the air lock. The operation of the space-borne "garbage dispoal chute" involves losses of a certain proportion of the atmosphere through the air lock. Grechko and Romanenko have been out into open space to inspect the docking unit—more losses. After all, on long flights such operations involving external inspection of the station and preventive work on it are inevitable. While on earth transport workers are usually criticized if they "transport air," in space this is perfectly valid freight."
Question. But all the same, it does sound very unusual: "A cargo of atmosphere and the cargo recipient the orbital station crew."
Answer. Yes, on earth such an item on the invoice would be considered at best unproductive. But Progress-1 will in fact supply Salyut-6 with gases forming the components of the station's atmosphere. A very large item of expenditure is connected with the operation of the life support system—it is essential to change the regenerators, carbon dioxide absorbents, the harmful impurity filters and so forth regularly.
The transport craft is also needed to provide materials and equipment for the scientific research program. After all, far from everything can be unloaded onto the station at once or sent into space when it is launched. Take just the biological material for the "Tsitos" experiment—it cannot be kept for more than 5 days. Another example: A great deal of film is used during the operation of the multiple zone [mnogozonalnaya] MKF-6M camera. It is impossible to take a large stock of film in advance-cosmic radiation, the so-called galactic background, will, over a protracted period, spoil the film by exposure.
Question. Konstantin Petrovich, you once remarked that it was still premature to speak of comfort, in the usual sense of the word, on board the station. Nonetheless, with every passing year the number of everyday comforts on board orbital stations is increasing—now there is even a shower. Obviously this also adds further items to the list you have given?
Answer. Undoubtedly. Water is needed for the shower, and towels, sanitary wipes [gigiyenicheskiye salfetki], and so forth. Very mundane, but extremely necessary items, are needed. For instance, underwear. In the "flight" against weightlessness the cosmonauts have to sweat a lot on the exercise machine and they have to change their underwear quite frequently. In a word, to total up all the "items of expenditure" in a day they amount to 20-30KG. Simple arithmetic shows that in a month this adds up to almost a ton and in a year to about 10 tons. It is perfectly obvious that it is irrational to load such a mass of freight on when the station is launched and indeed it would simply be hard to find room for it.
Question. One last question, Konstantin Petrovich: Progress-1 has been created on the basis of the Soyuz. What distinguishes the freight-carrying version of the transport craft?
Answer. Since there is no crew on board the Progress-1 the living compartment is unnecessary and it is replaced by a freight compartment. Racks have been installed here on which the baggage we send to Romanenko and Grechko is fixed. The craft is controlled by automated equipment and therefore the instrument compartment has been somewhat enlarged and additional systems have been installed in it.
To simplify the structure as much as possible and if possible make it cheaper, we do not provide for Progress-1 to return to earth. After it has undocked it will gradually descend and enter the dense layers of the atmosphere and burn up. Therefore, there is no reentry vehicle on the craft and no parachute systems or thermal protection are needed—and they would amount to a considerable weight. Instead we have installed a compartment containing tanks carrying fuel for the Salyut-6 and a pneumatic system for transferring it.
... In 2 days Progress-1 has "overtaken" the station. Usually the docking is planned for the day after the launch, but this time there are no people on board the craft and there is no reason to hurry. On the contrary, it is even more convenient to prolong the orbit-matching process: It makes the ballistics experts' work easier and less fuel is used on dynamic operations.
When the craft approached the station the automatic rendezvous process began. During this time all space orientation operations are performed with the aid of a radar rendezvous system. It measures the distance between the Salyut-6 and Progress-1 and rate of closing, the station's angular coordinates and the rate of side-slip. The results of the readings undergo logic processing and the computer gives orders to the approaching vernier engine and docking and orientation-system engines. There are about 10 of these engines on the craft and their thrust is considerable but they insure high precision in maneuvering operations. A television camera on the station has been turned on and we can see the blue expanses of Siberia floating past under the craft. ( Moscow, Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya (in Russian), Jan. 24, 1978,
p. 4.)
Some comments about the space support ship "Volkov" appeared in Izvestiya in late January 1978.
The rookie of the space fleet, the ship "Kosmonavt Vladislav Volkov," is working near the coast of Cuba. This is the flagship of a new series of ships. Their basic purpose, just like that of the ships built in the sixties, the "Kegostrov," "Morzhovets," "Borovichi," and "Nevel," is reception of telemetric and scientific information. But unlike these old ships, the "Kosmonavt Vladislav Volkov," also provides the control center's radio communications with the cosmonauts.
This new ship is smaller than the space fleet's flagship. Displacement of the " Kos-
monavt Yuriy Gagarin" is 45,000 tons, but that of the "Kosmonavt Vladislav Volkov" is only 9,000 tons. Nevertheless, the new motorship has rather impressive dimensions: its length is 121.9 meters and beam is 17. Its cruising range is 16,000 miles and speed is 15 knots. The latest compact equipment has been installed on board the "Kosmonavt Vladislav Volkov." It is distributed very efficiently and thus the new ship's opportunities in providing for space flights are very great. (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian) Jan. 26, 1978.)
In late January, 1978, Academician Petrov commented on the ramifications of the Salyut 6/Soyuz 27 program.
[Special correspondent A. Pokrovskiy report: "New Paths Are Open: Salyut-6, Soyuz-27, Progress-1: Our Commentary"]
Flight control center—Academician G. I. Petrov comments:
First of all I would like to note that the use of an automatic transport craft to service a manned scientific station is a fundamentally new step in spaceflight. With the docking of Progress-1 the Salyut-6-Soyuz-27 complex significantly extended its potential. Such complexes have the potential to become permanent working bases. Regular replenishment of essential scientific apparatus and supplies will make it possible to make stations of the Salyut type into scientific laboratories with replaceable teams of specialists. Automatic machines will also help to turn the stations into industrial enterprises—let us say, into chemical plants for obtaining particularly pure materials or technological workshops where, in high vacuum and weightlessness, it is possible to create alloys and structures unobtainable on earth.
We are now calling the automatic transport ship a "truck," but surely it could be assigned the role of a "tug?" With the help of its motors the station could be moved to another orbit, and consequently its potential can be increased.
Since we are talking about the use of automatic machines in near-earth space, I would like to add that they are quite capable of playing an independent role. The most convincing example of this is astronomical platforms precisely oriented toward some heavenly body.
Finally, every new elaboration in space design opens up a concrete path for man's conquest of near-earth space, around the earth, which is inconceivable without assembly work. The more so since during the flight of Salyut-6 Yuriy Romanenko and Georgiy Grechko tested new spacesuits intended precisely for such work. (Academician on Permanence, Potential of Salyut-based Complexes, Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Jan. 26, 1978, p. 2.)
The following commentaries on the refueling of Salyut 6 appeared in early February, 1978.
After control checks of the air-tightness of the fuel lines and containers of the Progress-1 transport ship and the Salyut-6 station, the cosmonauts sent out commands from control panels for the commencement of operations to fill the station's tanks with the oxidizer. The refueling process was controlled by the crew and specialists from mission control centre.
A unique technical experiment involving the refueling of a manned orbital station was carried out for the first time in the practice of space flights. All the instruments and assemblies of the new system of refueling in space performed flawlessly at all the stages of the operation—checking out the airtightness of the refueling lines and the tanks of the transport ship and the space ship, pumping out compressed gas from the fuel tanks of the station by means of compressors, and filling the station's tanks with fuel components.
In the course of the preparatory operations and the refueling, the cosmonauts worked with precision and close interaction with the specialists from mission control centre, ensured the orbital station's refueling within the scheduled time period (Moscow, Tass (in English), Feb. 3, 1978.)
Moscow , February 3, Tass.—Tass special correspondent Nikolay Zheleznov writes:
The last and most labour-consuming discharge operation—to refuel the station and provide it with oxidizer—has been completed at the space port at noon today.
The reserves of fuel and other equipment are quite sufficient for an active continuation of the Salyut-6 flight. Each space launching, however, brings in it, apart from practical goals, new experimental tasks. In this sense the manned expedition of 1977-1978 is a special one. A new station with two docking units was tested at work for the first time. A possibility of the conduct of repair work by the cosmonauts in the open space was tried out. The feasibility and expediency of combining the crews of two delivery spaceships on board an orbital station was proved. ( Moscow, Tass (in English), 1333 GMT, Feb. 3, 1978 ["The Way To Prolong Salyut
Station's Flight"—Tass headline].)
Commenting on the role of man in space, General Beregovoy stated:
Moscow, February 7, Tass.—"The experiments and tests now carried on in outer space serve to prepare future starts," flyer-cosmonaut Georgiy Beregovoy notes in an interview to the army newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda.
86 human beings have already been on different space orbits. The total duration of the stay of human beings in the extremely specific conditions of space flight equals about four years. Although these figures seem to be rather significant, the process of space exploration is still in the initial stage, Beregovoy said. Long-term orbital stations, increasing duration of flights, crammed working programmes, do not rule out, in my opinion, one feature of the professional duties of cosmonauts: They are not only explorers and experimenters, but also testers. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1050 GMT, Feb. 7, 1978.)
Multimodal space stations of the future and the capabilities of resupply spacecraft were discussed in the following articles.
"Progress" has become a space tug. In the future, probably, special space tugs will operate in circumterrestrial space and these will be able to transport freight from low orbits into higher orbits, for example, for the construction of multiton "islands." The latter may be in a geosynchronous orbit at a distance of about 36,000 km from the earth. (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Feb. 7, 1978, by B. Konovalov.)
Moscow, February 8, Tass.—The Soviet spaceship Progress-1, which has a mass of 7,020 kilograms, can bring into an orbit around the earth 2,300 kilograms of equipment, materials, fuel and gas. This ratio is high enough for contemporary space technology, Pravda writes today. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 0940 GMT, Feb. 8, 1978.)
[Article by Candidate of Technical Sciences Yu. Pavlov and Engineer L. Ivanov Article: "Tanker, Frieght Carrier and Tug"]
The ever-increasing duration of flights by cosmonauts has put forward an imperative demand that ways be found to replenish materials expended in orbit and equipment that has exhausted its useful life. The level of modern technology still does not make it possible to set up production of the necessary resources directly in space. Therefore the most effective way at present to replenish stocks on scientific stations designed to operate for long periods is to develop freight transport operations which link the earth with the station's orbit. The Progress-1 freight transport spacecraft was created in the Soviet Union for this purpose.
The docking unit of the Progress contains additional automatic hydraulic connectors in comparison with the analogous unit on board the Soyuz. These insure the hermetic coupling of the main hydraulic conduits of the freighter's refueling system with the main hydraulic conduits of the station's motor installation when the latter is being refueled. The hatch of the docking unit can be opened both automatically and also manually by the crew.
The bulk of the units of the refuelling system and gas replenishment system are housed in the second compartment; these consist of four fuel tanks, spherical containers filled with compressed air and nitrogen, pneumatic and hydraulic units, sensors, indicating devices and other elements. The total quantity of fuel and eases which can be delivered is 1,000 kilograms.
The refuelling and air replenishment system are fundamentally novel on the Progress, since these operations were unprecedented in space flights. They operate automatically on commands from the ground or from Salyut. (Moscow Pravda (in Russian), Feb. 8, 1978, p. 3.)
The use of satellites for the experimental transmission of newspaper photocopies was the subject of a February, 1978 Pravda article.
"A year ago Pravda reported the start of the experimental transmission of photo copies of central newspapers from the capital to Khabarovsk via satellites of the Orbita communications system," S. I. Martsenitsen continues. "And now the tests of the Moscow-Space-Far East line have been completed. This line has been commissioned. Some 11 publications are now sent to Khabarovsk via space communications channels. Preparations have begun for the regular transmission of newspapers via artificial earth satellites to other remote cities of the country too. In the long term it is planned to create such lines between Moscow and Irkutsk, Magadan, Vladivostok and Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk."
The building of new reception centers for newspaper pages is continuing. This year transmission lines to Mineralnyye Vody, Ufa, Frunze, Voroshilovgrad, Kishinev, Tbilisi and Baku will be commissioned. It is thought that the day is not far off when it will become commonplace for all the inhabitants of our vast country to receive central newspapers at the same time as Muscovites do. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Feb. 13, 1978.)
Some metallurgical experiments conducted on board the Salyut 6/Soyuz 27 complex were reviewed.
Moscow , February 15, Tass.—A Tass correspondent reports from mission control
centre: The crew of the Soviet orbital research complex Salyut-G-Soyuz-27 has started the fulfilment of planned technological experiments. Today Yuriy Romanenko and Georgiy Grechko carried out the first such experiment by means of the installation "Splav" (alloy). To lessen the influence of dynamic perturbances on the course of the experiment, the orbital complex was put in the drift regime under which all engines of the orientation system are switched off.
The cosmonauts placed a capsule containing materials under study into an electric heating chamber installed in a special airlock. After the airlock was depressurised the system of electric heating was switched on. The necessary temperature regime was maintained in the working zone throughout the required period. The process of crystallisation of molten substances followed the programme of regulated cooling. All operations to ensure optimal temperature regimes were performed by means of a programming unit. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1234 GMT, Feb. 15, 1978.)
"There are three heat zones in the Splav-01," we were told by one of its designers, A. V. Yegorov. "A constant temperature is maintained in the two outer zones higher in one and lower in the other—while in the central part we can provide a gradual temperature drop lengthwise through the zone. The two outer zones can be utilized for so-called volume crystallization of various alloys, when the mixture is heating, melting and subsequently cooling. The process of controlled crystallization can be performed in the central zone."
As the unit is in operation, the solution cools, and the crystallization zone creeps slowly to the right, as it were. A single crystal grows on a primordial tiny seed and reaches a size suitable for practical utilization, in the electronics industry, for example. (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Feb. 16, 1978.)
Earth-Mars-Jupiter windows for the 1979-90 period were analyzed in early 1978.
A study was made of Earth-Mars-Jupiter flight trajectories. The authors give a method for computing the trajectories which are optimum with respect to power requirements and their numerical characteristics for the years 1979-1990. Also considered are the conditions for a flight around Mars, the influence of a "window" of launchings on the trajectory characteristics and the effectiveness of the correcting maneuvers in different flight segments. It is shown that in individual launching years trajectories with gravitational flight around Mars ensure a substantial energy advantage. (Flight Trajectories to Jupiter, Moscow, Kosmicheskiye Issledovaniya (in Russian), vol. 16, No. 1, 1978, pp. 38-42 [Article by K. G. Georgiyev and 0. V. Papkov, "Flight Trajectories to Jupiter Using the Martian Gravitational Field"].)
Studies of the Earth's atmosphere and its meaning for the future were also the subject of Salyut 6 experimentation.
Out of the thousand circuits made by the Cosmonauts Yuriy Romanenko and Georgiy Grechko on board the Salyut-6 station 150 were registered in their logbooks as devoted to active observations of the earth's atmosphere, in particular, of silver clouds. This development enables scientists to consider the Salyut-6 expedition as the biggest ever geophysical experiment in space orbit.
The importance of this effort is obvious. The amount of aerosoles and carbon dioxide at various altitudes is growing. Scientists believe that by the year 2000 the discharge of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere will increase 50 per cent as compared with the present time. And this, of course, will introduce substantial changes into the planet's heat balance. (Moscow, Feb. 15. 1978, Tass.)
Experiments dealing with metallurgical processes in space continue to receive attention in the Soviet space program, and in particular, continue on Salyut 6.
Yesterday on board the "Salyut-6-Soyuz-27" complex the second technological experiment on the "SPLAV" system began. The following pairs were chosen as substances to be studied: aluminum—tungsten, molybdenum—gallium, as well as semi-conductive material. Earlier on the "SPLAV" system experiments were carried out using the following compounds: copper—indium, aluminum—magnesium, and indium antimonide. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Feb. 18, 1978, p. 1.)
Yesterday the second experiment on the "SPLAV" installation was completed. Under weightlessness conditions compounds of the following pairs of substances were obtained: aluminum and tungsten, gallium and molybdenum, and also a semi-conductor material. Sealed containers of the materials obtained will be returned to earth for study of features of the interaction of solid and liquid metals under weightlessness conditions. This is important for understanding processes of welding and soldering and the creation of new composite materials havings practical significance. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Feb. 20, 1978.)
The joint Soviet/French biological experiment on Salyut 6 was described in the following Tass article:
Moscow , February 20, Tass.—The Soviet-French complex of thermostatic equipment has successfully passed the test in terrestrial and space conditions, the newspaper Izvestiya writes today. These instruments are simple and reliable.
Biological cultures prepared by Soviet and French biologists were "put asleep" in an ordinary refrigerator and placed within a special insert into the Soviet semiconductor instrument "Termokont-2."
On the eve of the launching of the spaceship "Soyuz-27," "Termokont-2" handed over its biological "load" to another Soviet instrument, the thermostat "Bioterm-8." Its task was to maintain the same temperature of plus eight degrees centigrade during the launching of "Soyuz-27" and its stay in orbit right til docking with the orbital station "Salyut-6."
"Bioterm-8" operated impeccably during this period and after docking the biological insert was placed into the French semiconductor thermostat "Cytos." There the cultures of cells were "awakened" by warmth and the experiment to study the influence of space flight factors on the cellular division of micro-organisms was started at the strictly controlled temperature of plus 25 degrees centigrade. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 2024 GMT, Feb. 20, 1978.)
A cryogenic system for a space telescope on Salyut 6 received the
following comments:
CRYOGENIC SYSTEM FOB SUBMILLIMETER TELESCOPE TESTED
A closed-cycle cryogenic system designed to obtain the temperature of liquid helium (—269 degrees C) was tested on 21 February. This temperature is obtained through the operation of a compressor, two gas refrigeration machines and intermediate heat exchangers and by cooling gas at the decisive stage as it flows through an expanding nozzle. The purpose of the cryogenic system is to cool the radiation detector of the submillimeter telescope BST-1M mounted on "Salyut-6" station. Tests showed that the system functions well.
During technical experiments on 21 February, the cosmonauts put the submillimeter telescope into operation (Pravda, Feb. 22, 1978, p. 2). They adjusted the telescope and its optical viewer relative to the station's astroorientation system through observations of Sirius and Jupiter. They also tested the telescope's own autonomous control system.
Measurements were made of submillimeter radiation of the earth's atmosphere by directing the axis of the telescope toward the earth. Information on atmospheric radiation in the submillimeter range makes it possible to establish the existence and movement of active regions of increased moisture content (Pravda, Feb. 23, 1978, p. 4.)
FLIGHT CONTROL CENTRE, February 23, Tass.—"We have liquid helium"— this report, an unusual one for a space radioline, came on the 73rd day of the space mission aboard the manned orbital station Salyut-6. It meant that Yuriy Romanenko and Georgiy Grechko started a new series of experiments in outer space. It began with the testing of a cryogenic system, a unique device designed for cooling miniature crystals which act as receivers of radiation in the onboard telescope. Instruments at the telescope control panel showed a record temperature of minus 269 degrees for this type of instruments, only 4.2 degrees above absolute zero. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1930 GMT, Feb. 23, 1978.)
The Soviets continued to maintain a high level of interest in the concept of closed-circuit, biological life support systems utilizing the single-cell alga Chlorella. Experiments on this concept continue in Salyut 6.
Experiments aboard the space complex have already begun. The first of these is biological. It is being carried out with the well-known green alga Chlorella. This lower plant has already been in space more than once. The interest of scientists is understandable: Chlorella will be specially created for the greenhouses of future interplanetary ships and long-lived stations with a closed ecological system. Reference is to an autonomous biosphere in which the plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air and enrich it with oxygen and give man water, some food, everything necessary for life. Now space stations and ships have special absorbents and regenerators for maintaining the normal composition of the air, apparatus taking water from the air in the ship, and containers with food. It is impossible to store all this for a year or two for distant voyages into space. This means that it is necessary to create a closed biosphere with the complete cycling of matter in a relatively small volume of spaceships or stations. This problem is exceedingly complex. Chlorella is also interesting in that it very actively absorbs carbon dioxide and releases oxygen, simultaneously yielding water and food. It is rich in proteins and in chemical composition in a quite adequate nutritious product. Still another merit of this surprising alga is that it matures rapidly, which is very important for the space greenhouse.
Earlier space experiments with Chlorella gave scientists rich material. But, to be sure, by no means all problems have been solved. A further development of these investigations is the experiment carried out by the international crew aboard the "Salyut-6"-"Soyuz-27"-"Soyuz-28" complex. This time it is not Chlorella alone which is in use; other algae are also being employed. And the Chlorella itself is unusual: in addition to the normal algae there are special modified forms, so-called mutants, which have no chlorophyll.
Aleksey Gubarev and Vladimir Remek delivered to the "Soyuz-28" four small containers with a nutrient medium and nine sealed ampules which contain algae. By means of special devices the cosmonauts broke some of the ampules and the algae can now develop rapidly. Other containers are control ampules. After return of the containers to earth the scientists will compare the algae. This will make it possible to learn how weightlessness acts on the cells of lower plants which are at rest and which are actively growing.
Three different types of algae are developing in one of the containers. Will there be a "competition" among them which will lead to a "struggle"? This is a question which is of interest to specialists. Similar investigations are being carried out simultaneously on earth.
Unicellular algae have become part of the first experimental systems for regeneration of the atmosphere and water, successfully operating in terrestrial laboratories. New investigations aboard the space complex will make it possible to take still another step on the path of development of promising ecological systems.
Preparations for the "Chlorella experiment were carried out jointly by the scientists of the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. A careful selection was made of the species and forms of algae and a method was developed for carrying out the experiment. The materials returned from space are sent for investigations to the laboratories and institutes of the USSR and CzSSR. (Moscow, Trud (in Russian), Mar. 8, 1978, p. 3 [Article by V. Golobachev: "Four in the Stellar House"].)
K. Feoktistov discussed the possible uses of space for economic profit in this March 16, 1978 interview.
For the time being there is no unanimous opinion: will cosmonautics follow the path of manned flights or will preference be given to automated mechanisms? Most leading problems, such as astrophysical investigations and the monitoring of natural resources, etc., can be solved by means of automatic vehicles. The prospects for manned orbital stations, possibly, are related to industrial construction in orbit.
But this is my subjective point of view, which many, probably, will not share. However, I feel that in the coming decades the developing technology will make it possible to solve the problem of creating in terrestrial orbit systems of energy satellites with an area of about tens of square kilometers. Such giants will transform solar energy into electric power and by means of radio waves will transmit to the earth a power of tens of millions of kilowatts.
The creation of such giants will require the implementation of industrial construction in space. This means that millions of tons of equipment and materials must be put into orbit where it will be necessary to construct factories for the transformation of these materials into construction parts which will be assembled into giant constructions. However, such production will scarcely be completely automated. Without question, automatic equipment will be used there, but the assembly and control of the entire process will probably remain to people and large teams of men will undoubtedly participate in the creation of such giant structures.
The roads to this end are still distant and long. But the experience of man's prolonged presence in space, the development of means and methods for the approach and docking of ships, the possibility of putting freight into orbit, this is the very experience which we can then use for industrial activity in orbit. I think that such activity is ahead of us.
To be sure, there can also be another direction in industrial activity in space. For example, it may rove to be desirable to construct factories in orbit for the production of materials under weightlessness conditions. These can be ultrapure metals, semiconductors, ultranew biologically active substances, drugs, etc.
However, if one speaks of the main lines in development of cosmonautics in general, then in my opinion the principal condition for most projects must be profitability.
Without question, curiosity has been a considerable stimulus in our activity. And it will probably also motivate us in the future. But in the immediate neighborhood of the earth there is scarcely anything that interesting. But if we succeeded in finding life on Mars and learned to understand its genetic code, this would be extraordinary and extremely interesting, but there are scarcely great hopes for this.
But there is hope for economically profitable activity of the type I mentioned. And possibly this will become the principal condition for the development of space technology. It is another thing that such a direction is not being formulated at once, but I emphasize that these are my subjective points of view.
In addition to the use of circumterrestrial space and planetary cosmonautics it is necessary, to be sure, to define still another direction—fundamental investigations, in particular, the creation of powerful tools for astrophysical research, operating in different spectral ranges. (Moscow, Komsomol'skaya Pravda (in Russian), Mar. 16, 1978, p. 2 [V. Zubkov interview with K. Feoktistov: "An Orbit of Optimism"].)
In March 1978, Tass announced that Soviet scientific progress would enable man to live in space for over a year. A March 1978 "Trud" article explained the importance of long manned space flight for future planetary exploration.
Moscow , March 17, Tass.—"Man can live and work in outer space for over a year." This conclusion was made by Soviet scientists after summing up the preliminary results of the 36-day orbital flight made by flier Yuriy Romanenko and Flight Engineer Georgiy Grechko. Professor Anatoliy Yegorov who heads the medical group of the Flight Control Centre, singled out four factors that warranted such an optimistic conclusion. "Throughout the flight," he said to Tass, "the cosmonauts retained high creative interest in scientific research and experimental work. They carried out over 50 major planned investigations and approximately as many at their own initiative."
"The cosmonauts displayed an amazing spirit of creativity and capacity for work,"he said.
As a second factor Professor Yegorov mentioned correct forecasting by specialist of the effects of weightlessness on the human body, and means of neutralizing them. A large dose of physical exercises and loads the crew got on the running track, veloergometer as well as the use of the load suit Penguin and the suit Chibis which coordinate blood flow in the body to bring it closer to that one has on earth—are some of the measures which predetermined the good condition of Yuriy Romanenko and Georgiy Grechko. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1321 GMT, Mar. 17, 1978.)
A study of body adaptation to weightlessness is very important for specialists. For example, a flight to Mars can have a minimum duration of three years. In case of necessity the ship would not return to the earth and would not land at any time. It is necessary to know precisely whether the human body could contend with such a flight, what preventive measures would be required and whether it is necessary to develop an appropriate biomedical strategy . . . All this must be known in order to ensure effective operation of long-term orbital stations in circumterrestrial space. (Moscow, Trud (in Russian), Mar. 17, 1978, by V. Golobachev.)
In March and April 1978, Tass announced that the U.S.S.R. would launch scientific satellites for magnetospheric research and satellites for improved weather reporting and ship navigation.
Moscow , March 30, Tass.—A variety of spacecraft are to be launched before the end of 1979 under the international magnetospheric research programme. Among them will be the Soviet lonozond satellites, satellites of Prognoz series and the American Geos-2, Vladimir Migulin, a noted Soviet expert in this field, told a Tass correspondent. The director of the Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, Ionosphere and Propagation of Radio Waves, gave an interview in connection with the completion of the work in Moscow of the committee which is in charge of the international magnetospheric research programme. The complex of satellites—Soviet, Intercosmos series, European and American ones—as well as air balloons will help explore a vast area of the near-earth space at different altitudes, Migulin said. Ultimately man must learn [to] forecast solar flashes, magnetic storms, northern lights, and radiation hazard for space flights, and make long-term forecasts as to propagation of radio waves.
Moscow.—On 31 March the Cosmos-1,000 artificial earth satellite was launched
in the Soviet Union.
The satellite is designed to perfect the space navigation system that is being created to insure the determination of the location of U.S.S.R. ships from the merchant marine and the fishing fleet in any spot in the world's oceans. (Moscow, Tass International Service (in Russian), 1219 GMT, Apr. 1, 1978.)
Space radio beacons open new horizons, offering an opportunity for establishing a
global all-weather and highly accurate system for navigation. The satellite keeps sending to earth signals of a definite frequency. These are received by ship aerials and enter an electronic computer for processing.
The basic principle in determining coordinates by signals from the satellite is the use of Doppler effect. The frequency of the signals changes because of the great speed of the satellite. Using these data the electronic navigator produces navigational information in a convenient form—geographical coordinates and precise astronomical time. This makes it possible to automate ship navigation to the utmost.
Together with Molniya and Meteor satellites, which ensure trouble-free communications through outer space and efficient transmission of weather reports, navigation satellites will help enhance considerably the effectiveness of the use of the sea
fleet and ensure the safety of sea navigation in all parts of the world ocean. Geodesists and geologists, for whom astronomically accurate coordinates are also of great importance, have long been dreaming of such apparatuses. (Moscow, Tass (in English), Apr. 1, 1978.)
Two articles published in April 1978 describe the possible use of satellites in the production of electricity and solar energy.
Let's consider electric stations in orbit. Westerners have begun to talk about them in connection with the energy crisis in the capitalist world. There are already many
plans for them in existence. But, indeed, they will turn out to be unnecessary if scientists can ignite a controlled thermonuclear reaction on earth.
Therefore, long-range predictions are risky. Only one thing can be said here for certain: the use of rocket and space technology in scientific research has already resulted in many remarkable discoveries that have changed our previous conceptions of space, earth and their interrelationships. (Interview with V. A. Shatalov: "Path to the Stars") Moscow, Sovetskaya Rossiya (in Russian), Apr. 10, 1978, p. 4.)
High-capacity heliostations can be constructed in space, giving us on earth the possibility of using part of the great energy of the sun. Plans for them already exist. Space will become the industrial foundation of future humanity. Under the specific conditions of space and celestial bodies, many technological processes can be organized highly effectively. Mankind will remove from earth those energy installations that discharge heat that is harmful to the environment. ( Moscow, Trud (in Russian), Apr. 11, 1978, p. 4. [I. Yudin interview with G. T. Beregovoy: "Beyond the Limits of the Earth"].)
Academician B. Petrov discussed the important role of Salyut 6 in the development of Soviet cosmonautics in this April 11, 1978 Tass announcement.
Contemporary science and development of national economy, said Academician B. Petrov, chairman of the Intercosmos Council of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, call for an increasingly wider use of outer space equipment. "Soviet science regards the creation of orbital stations with replaceable crews as man's main road to outer space," as was pointed out by general secretary of the CPSU CC, President of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet Comrade Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev. The development and successful functioning in orbit of the new scientific orbital complex on the basis of Salyut-6 is the best illustration of the fact that Soviet cosmonautics is confidently advancing along this road. The creation of the complex has opened a new chapter in space exploration, a new stage in the development of world cosmonautics. The Salyut-6 station is a space craft of the next generation compared with the preceding orbital stations. It has two docking units and makes it possible to receive two spaceships simultaneously. (Moscow, Tass (in English), Apr. 11, 1978.)
Several Tass announcements in April 1978 described the participation of cosmonauts from Eastern Europe, Mongolia, and Cuba in the Salyut 6 program.
Citizens of Poland and the GDR, who underwent training in the Star City, are to take part in the next expeditions, Petrov said. The time of their flights will be determined after a careful processing of the results of the present expedition. The flights have been scheduled for 1978. The question of longer Soviet expeditions will be decided only after a careful study of the results of this flight of record duration. Joint crews of cosmonauts of the USSR, Poland and the GDR will work on board the Salyut-6 station. The transport space craft Progress will also be used for the supply of new expeditions. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1845 GMT, Apr. 11, 1978.)
USSR decorations have been awarded to the heroes of the space epic. Leonid Ilich
Brezhnev, general secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and chairman of the USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium, presented high awards of the Soviet Union to the participants in the 96-day heroic space epic in the Kremlin today. Orders of Lenin and Hero of the Soviet Union Gold Star medals were awarded to the USSR pilot-cosmonauts of the orbital scientific research complex Salyut-6-Soyuz—Romanenko, Grechko, Dzhanibekov, Makarov, and Gubarev—and Czech cosmonaut-researcher Remek.
For the successful accomplishment of the lengthy flight on board the orbital Salyut-6-Soyuz complex and for the fortitude and heroism they displayed, our long-livers in space have been honored with high awards: Comrade Yuriy Viktoravich Romanenko has been awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union; and USSR Pilot-Cosmonaut Georgiy Mikhaylovich Grechko has been presented with the Order of Lenin and a second Gold Star medal.
For the excellent fulfillment of the flight on the Salyut-6-Soyuz complex and the implementation of an extensive program of experiments. Comrade Vladimir Aleksandrovich Dzhanibekov has been awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union, and USSR Pilot-Cosmonaut Oleg Grigoryevich Makarov has been presented with the Order of Lenin and a second Gold Star medal.
The feat of the members of the international space crew has won high appraisal. For successfully carrying out the spaceflight on the orbital scientific research complex Salyut-6-Soyuz, Comrade Aleksey Aleksandrovich Gubarev has been awarded the Order of Lenin and a second Gold Star medal; and Comrade Vladimir Remek has been awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union. (Moscow, Domestic Service (in Russian), 1000 GMT, Apr. 11, 1978.)
Moscow , April 12, Tass.—"A qualitatively new stage in the development of the Intercosmos programme is connected with the beginning of international space flights. Future cosmonauts, citizens of Poland and the GDR, are completing their training now and citizens of Bulgaria, Hungary, Cuba, Mongolia and Romania started training," said Academician Boris Petrov, the chairman of the Intercosmos Council. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1608 GMT, Apr. 12, 1978.)
This April 1978 Hungarian newspaper article described some benefits of the Soviet space program.
The man-made satellites have also been used in so-called radio navigation, servicing to precisely determine the location of ships. Thanks to the man-made satellites watching the movement of these and of the icebergs, no major ship catastrophes or collisions have taken place on the open seas for years. The experts call attention to the act that the last such major accident occurred on the edge of the Northern Arctic Ocean during the initial stages of space research. But today the airplanes are also enjoying the advantages of navigation by man-made satellites.
Space production of technical nature can be expected soon, for example in the production of tungsten of very high quality. This also affects and may interest Hungary, since we are a country producing incandescent lamps in large quantities. As shown also by the Salyut-6-Soyuz-28 experiments, the experiments are also conducted within the framework of Interkosmos, the socialist countries' joint space research program.
It is interesting that turbine blades are expected to become one of the first products produced industrially on spaceships. That is, if the internal structure of the blade s metal is right in the longitudinal direction, then the blade is firmer, it wears less, and consequently blades of smaller weight can be used. This makes possible significant savings of metal. The life span of such blades is much longer. Today, manufacturing is in the preparation stage.
But perhaps the manufacture of pharmaceuticals is the most important for humanity among the tasks which can be solved within the framework of production in space. On spaceships, because of the use of weightlessness, biologically effective agents have been successfully separated. Progressing along this path, a hormone of the lining of secondary kidney has been produced on a space station, which promotes the proliferation of red blood cells. This product may have tremendous significance before kidney transplant operations, because through its use regular blood transfusions will not be necessary. (Budapest, Nepszabadsag (in Hungarian), Apr. 12, 13, 1978 [Parts 2 and 3 of article by Gabor Pal Peto: "Man and the Universe"].)
Feoktistov, Cosmonaut and Doctor of Technical Sciences, was interviewed for this April 12, 1978 article on the future of orbital space stations.
[Correspondent G. Lomanov interview with Konstantin Petrovich Feoktistov, pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR, doctor of technical sciences and Hero of the Soviet Union: "Road to the Stars"]
Question. How do you picture the future of orbital stations?
Answer. They will develop above all as multipurpose scientific laboratories. Medical and biological experiments making it possible to ascertain how long man can live and work in space without harming his health will continue on board the stations. As before, great significance will also attach to manned stations for the study of natural resources—the highly effective nature of this work has already been proven by practice. It is no accident that in the past 2 years the number of organizations using space information in the interests of the national economy has doubled.
The orbital stations' unique potential will also be used for extra-atmospheric astronomical observations and for technological experiments making it possible to obtain materials that under earth conditions cannot be obtained at all or cost too much. In a word, in fulfilling national economic tasks, the orbital stations will also serve to seek out the most effective systems of methods for developing methods for research and the design of scientific instruments and equipment.
The problem of the optimal distribution of duties between man and machine is becoming increasingly topical with the increase in the duration of space flights. There is much that is controversial here: Some specialists believe that space is above all a sphere for the operation of machines. There is reason in their arguments: For instance, astrophysical observations even in the immediate future could be carried out with the aid of preprogrammed apparatus. Research into natural resources is also perfectly within the powers of modern radio- or program-controlled television equipment. But it is still people who have to elaborate the methods for this research and correlate the degree to which the information obtained by ma chine corresponds with the real picture.
In my view, very broad prospects are opened up for manned stations if they are examined above all as the basis for industrial construction in space. Not everyone shares this view, but I personally believe that within the next few decades the development of technology will make it possible to actually set the task of creating power plants in space. These installations, gigantic by present standards and covering tens of square kilometers, will trap solar energy and convey it in transformed form for use on earth. With time, technological experiments will lead to the creation of real industrial enterprises in orbit.
And this means that millions of tons of diverse equipment will have to be put into space and enormous and complex structures will have to be assembled there. Such work can scarcely be fully automated. People—large collectives of people, moreover—will control the equipment and carry out installation work. Of course, this will not happen rapidly and many people may relegate such forecasts to the realm of fantasy. But after all, 17 years ago Yuriy Gagarin's flight also seemed a fantastic achievement. ( Moscow, Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya (in Russian), Apr. 12, 1978, p. 0.)
On May 2, 1978, Academician Sagdeyev predicted that space stations would soon be used for industrial production.
Moscow , 2 May, Tass.—Very soon, perhaps in the next few decades, research and industrial complexes will be built in terrestrial orbit. Metallurgical, engineering and chemical plants will be built there. Industries will appear in outer space which cannot be organized on earth in any case, according to Academician Roald Sagdeyev, Director of the Space Research Institute U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences. (Sagdeyev Views Prospects for Soviet Cosmonautics, Moscow, Tass (in English), 2057 GMT, May 2, 1978.)
The Soviet military newspaper "Krasnaya Zvezda" on July 4, 1978 described medical research being conducted to prolong manned flights.
In speaking of original medical and psychological experiments, Academician J. Rychlewski had in mind such Soviet-Polish experiments as the "Kardiolider," "Dosug" and "Opros." What is the essence of the mentioned experiments?
The "Kardiolider" experiment consists of two parts. In the first case the "Kavkazy" successively donned the "Chibis" suit, by means of which a rare-faction is created for the lower half of the body. As is well known, such a simulation results in the outflow of blood from the head to the legs. In the second case, use is made of the onboard bicycle-type ergometer. In both cases the specialists check the state of the cardiovascular system. This was done using the "Kardiolider-DOl" instrument. The latter was fabricated by the x-ray apparatus and medical devices plant in Warsaw. The action of the instrument is based on an analysis of the dynamics of cardiac contractions by means of measuring the bioelectric currents of the heart. The instrument weighs only 200 grams, has an autonomous current source and makes it possible to check the changes in the frequency of cardiac contractions in a wide range—from 60 to 180 beats per minute. Using a bicycle-type ergometer the "Kavkazy" have carried out two loads of a conditioning nature: limbering up (to a pulse rate of 130 beats per minute) and increasing (up to 150). When the frequency of cardiac contractions exceeded these stipulated levels, the instrument triggered a signal and the cosmonauts in the first case reduced the intensity of turning of the pedals, and in the second case stopped it altogether.
Scientists feel that the results of such investigations will make it possible to develop an effective system for preventing disorders of the cardiovascular system during prolonged space flights and maintenance of high performance of cosmonauts during all flight stages.
All these experiments have great importance even today when expeditions aboard orbital stations are becoming increasingly saturated and prolonged. But they are still more important for the tomorrow of cosmonautics. Indeed, the time is probably coming when the work of the crews aboard stations will continue for long months, and possibly years. The time is coming when earthlings will travel on interplanetary ships into the distant expanses of space in order, upon their return, to bring to man the knowledge which they have won from the universe. (Moscow, Krasnaya Zvezda (in Russian), July 4, 1978, by V. Ovcharov.)
A July 5, 1978 "Trud" article discussed future construction of industrial plants in space. This topic was also discussed in a July 6, 1978 "Pravda" article.
He was referring to the continuation of technological experiments in the "Splav-01" automatic electric heating installation that is on the orbital station. Into the heating chamber the cosmonauts placed small cylindrical ampules with a solid solution of cadmium telluride and mercury telluride. These very different materials are heated to a very high temperature, melted, and then, scientists expect, they will crystallize as they cool, forming a homogeneous semiconductor. This semiconductor could be used in supersensitive medical and electronic instruments. The experiment was prepared jointly by Soviet and Polish specialists (an ampule was sent from the Polish Academy of Sciences Institute of Physics). The smelting of cadmium, mercury and tellurium was conducted earlier on the station within the framework of the Soviet national program. It will be interesting to compare the analysis data of these alloys as obtained by Polish and Soviet specialists.
Commenting on these studies. Candidate of Technical Sciences, USSR Pilot-Cosmonaut V. N. Kubasov, who participated in two space flights, noted:
"Due to technological experiments on the station, we are nearing the time when unique industrial plants making use of the vast space vacuum and weightlessness will be constructed in near-earth space. Such plants must necessarily be created and perhaps even sooner than supposed by science fiction writers. However, it is first necessary to conduct intensive research and to determine just which materials can be obtained in space and just how they are to be produced. When these studies are completed, the question of constructing workshops and entire industrial plants in orbit will arise. Perhaps it will be possible even for me to work in such a plant. . ."
We discussed this with the designer of space systems. Doctor of Technical Sciences Professor K. P. Feoktistov.
"I think that the development of space technology will be closely linked with industrial activity in near-earth space," said the scientist. "This, apparently, will include not only workshops and plants in orbit, but high-capacity power stations as well. In fact, it is tempting to use solar energy to manufacture electricity, without polluting the earth and spoiling its natural resources. According to my estimates, the cost of such energy could be equivalent to that of what is presently being produced in earth-based power stations. Of course, these will have to be enormous structures. Let's say, an orbital power station with a 10-million kilowatt capacity will have to have solar cells with an area of 50-70 square kilometers. The antenna to transmit the energy to earth will be 1-1.5 kilometers in diameter. And the receiver on earth would cover an area of several square kilometers. Hundreds of these power stations would be required to accommodate all of mankind. And to construct them, factories in orbit to build the structural components are needed. . . Orbital stations are the experimental test area and the building ground for future industrial endeavors. . ."
"In what direction are the Soviet orbital stations developing?"
"Our first 'Salyut'," emphasized K. P. Feoktistov, "was, generally speaking, a 'test of the pen.' Many technical aspects of the 'Soyuz' transport ships, some of the equipment and components of the 'Soyuz' energy supply and orientation systems were adopted. The station was inserted into orbit on 19 April 1971 and proved to be highly useful. The service life of subsequent 'Salyut' ships was increased, and the energy indicators and fuel reserves were improved. New scientific equipment and airlocks for waste and refuse disposal appeared on 'Salyut-4,' and the station was made more comfortable. But already as soon as 'Salyut-4' was launched, it was obvious that a second docking unit was needed. It is a pity to stop work on a station because its fuel reserves have been depleted. The second docking unit makes it possible to refuel the station and markedly widens its capabilities."
"I imagine that in the future there will be space stations with several docking units. Modules will be docked to allow specialized research, for example, in geophysics, astrophysics and technology, to be conducted. . ."
"Throughout the time of construction and operation of a station, the scientific equipment, of course, becomes outmoded. New modules can be outfitted with more highly developed technology. I think that priority development in the near future will be in the modular construction of orbital stations." (Moscow, Trud (in Russian), July 5, 1978, p. 4 [Article by V. Golovachev: "The Future of the 'Salyut' "].)
"The advantages of orbital complexes is obvious," adds USSR Pilot-Cosmonaut Professor K. P. Feoktistov. "They can act as a prototype for future industrial enterprises in space by demonstrating the usefulness of the principle of modular construction. It is possible to imagine that, similar to the way in which manned transport and automatic freight ships are now docked to a space station, interchangeable modules with improved or new equipment will be moored with a basic space enterprise unit or an orbital laboratory according to rising demands." (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), July 6, 1978, p. 6 [Article by A. Pokrovskiy: "Separating and Meeting"].)
On July 16, 1978, "Izvestiya" carried a discussion of the possible benefits of glass production in space. "Pravda" also carried discussions of future production of glass crystals and film structures in the weightless conditions of outer space.
At the Flight Control Center one of the formulators of the experiment, Corre sponding Member USSR Academy of Sciences G. Petrovskiy, told newspapermen about what horizons are opening up before science and technology from this first test in orbit.
"In his time Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov noted that glass is the main component of optical systems," says G. Petrovskiy. "This assertion is also correct in our day, despite the broad penetration of electronics into optical instruments. The mastery of space is opening new horizons before optics and is affording a possibility for using new technological procedures for the creation of valuable materials and improving the properties of glass. Optics was one of the scientific and technical directions which made the storming of space possible. From the first flight, when Yuriy Gagarin saw the earth through his window, it [glass] has been soundly serving cosmonauts. And now cosmonauts in turn can assist in the development of optical instrument making."
By means of certain additives it is possible to impart to the glass valuable proper ties which are widely used in modern technology. For example, the addition of niodymium ions makes it possible to obtain glass capable of generating laser radiation. "Admixtures" of terbium and cerium create magnetically active materials used as optical shutters which can transmit radiation in only one direction. Photochromicglass enjoys a great popularity; it becomes darker in the sun and becomes clearer in darkened rooms.
The more uniform the distribution of the additive, the better is the quality of such alloyed glass. But a uniform distribution is difficult to achieve under terrestrial conditions. On photographs taken using electron telescopes it can be seen that the ions of heavy "impurities" have a tendency to collect into groups, resembling swarms of bees. Scientists hope that under weightlessness conditions this interaction among ions of impurities will be weakened and the distribution of additives will be more uniform. In one of the ampules in which the melting and cooling of glass took place under weightlessness conditions specialists placed "additives" of iron in order to check this hypothesis.
Modern technology requires purer and purer glass. But no matter how much the purity of the initial materials is increased, there is a problem with the walls of the vessels in which the glass mass is melted. At a temperature of 1,400° there are very few materials which can retain their strength and the glass is inevitably contaminated. Even costly platinum vessels are no solution to the problem. Platinum also partially passes into the hot melt and with subsequent cooling is released, segregated, in the form of tiny crystals which considerably reduce the optical properties of the materials.
Space can also be of assistance here. Under weightlessness conditions it is possible to carry out crucibleless Tnelting of glass, holding it by means of a system of acoustic sources creating a definite pressure, in principle, on earth if one makes use of very powerful acoustic generators it is also possible to "suspend" tiny masses, but after all, for industrial purposes it is necessary to have quite large particles. By such a method it is possible to obtain very pure glass or new types of glass with different additives which it is difficult to obtain under terrestrial conditions because very high temperatures are required and there are no vessels capable of withstanding them. (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), July 16, 1978, p. 4 [Article by B. Konovalov: "Glassmakers in Space'].)
On earth the glass must be given the necessary form before use. Mechanical processing distorts the structure of the material surface and subsequent careful polishing cannot completely eliminate the damage. In space it is possible to use such a tool as surface tension of the fluid. Using this scientists are hoping to obtain at once glass in such forms as optical lenses. It is also conceivable, although not in the immediate future, that it will be possible to fabricate optical elements for telescopes of unprecedented size. ( Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), July 16, 1978, p. 6 [Article by A. Pokrovskiy: "The 'Fotony' are Flying Over the Earth"].)
"What is it that we find attractive in space?" continues A. Yu. Malinin. "It is primarily that under weightlessness conditions we can plan on obtaining materials which are perfect in structure and more uniform in composition than those which for the time being can be obtained from factories on earth. We hope that space technology will help us."
"For the first time in world practice a program for the 'Salyut-6' provided for obtaining not only large crystals, but also another class of materials coming into still broader practical use—film structures. For this purpose a layer of another substance (or the same substance but with modified properties) is built up on the semiconductor surface; it has a thickness from tens of A to tens of microns and a geometry which is rigorously stipulated in advance. In space, where thermal processes, especially heat transfer, occur differently than on the earth, it becomes possible to create more perfect surfaces and transitional layers."
"I would like to mention one peculiarity of our apparatus," states the experiment director V. T. Khryapov. "Prior to this in space use was made of only one method for obtaining materials for electronics—the growing of crystals by the method of directed crystallization. We made provision for using three other methods. In particular, we intend to obtain film structures both by the method of a gas transport reaction and by the moving solvent method." ( Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), July 23, 1978, p. 6 [Article by Yu. Apenchenko: " 'Kristall'. . ."].)
Academician Glushko discussed manned flight and the industrialization of space in a September 3, 1978 "Izvestiya" article.
An interview was held with Academician Valentin Petrovich Glushko, the founder of Soviet rocket construction, the leader in development of the powerful liquid-fuel rocket engines used in launching satellites, manned space ships and orbital stations. In particular, he dealt with the question of how long man can remain in space. All this will be a step toward the industrialization of space. An increase in the duration of expeditions is admissible only gradually, as experimental data are accumulated, objectively confirming such a possibility with the mandatory condition that the crew's health and performance is maintained. If the results are positive, in the near future it appears reasonable to settle on a year's duration of the main expeditions as a maximum. (Moscow, Izvestiya (in Russian), Sept. 3, 1978, p. 2 [Article by B. Konovalov: "Mastering the Space 'Continent' "].)
The importance of maneuvering and docking a space ship is discussed in this September 8, 1978 "Krasnaya Zvezda" article.
The maneuvering of a ship near an orbital station, its transfer from one docking unit to another, is in itself very interesting. It considerably broadens the possibilities of space navigation and is a prototype of future broad transport operations in space. In such a way, by means of space ferries, it is possible, for example, to carry out communication between several orbital stations, extraterrestrial factories or even entire settlements, which very possibly will appear in the future. As space becomes more "lived in" there will be ever-broader use of such operations as redocking, maneuvering in orbit. The present experiment is an important step on this path. (Moscow, Krasnaya Zvezda (in Russian), Sept. 8, 1978, p. 1.)
In September 1978, Tass announced the decoration of Soviet cosmonaut Bykovskiy and East German cosmonaut Jaehn.
Moscow, September 10, Tass.—Soviet Cosmonaut Valeriy Bykovskiy was decorated with the Order of Lenin for the successful space flight in the orbital research complex Salyut-6-Soyuz and for courage and heroism shown during the flight. It was Valeriy Bykovskiy's third space flight. In the past he was twice awarded the highest title, the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1437 GMT, Sept. 10, 1978.)
BERLIN, September 11, Tass.—General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany Central Committee, President of the GDR State Council Erich Honecker has awarded the Karl Marx Order to Soviet Cosmonaut Colonel Valeriy Bykovskiy and conferred on him the honourary title of Hero of the German Democratic Republic. The first GDR cosmonaut, Lieutenant Colonel Sigmund Jaehn, was awarded the Karl Marx Order and had the title of Hero of the German Democratic Republic conferred on him. He also received the title of Pilot-Cosmonaut of the GDR.
The two cosmonauts were awarded for their outstanding services and for their courage and heroism displayed during the successful space flight and also for their participation in the fulfillment of the programme of scientific and technical studies on board the orbital space complex Salyut-6-Soyuz-29-Soyuz-31. Earlier, twice Hero of the Soviet Union Valeriy Bykovskiy was awarded the Soviet Order of Lenin while Sigmund Jaehn was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. (Moscow Tass (in English), 1307 GMT, Sept. 11, 1978.)
Cosmonaut Leonov described the future use of orbital stations in a October 25, 1978 "Pravda" article. Feoktistov discussed it further in the November 4 "Pravda."
Moscow, October 25, Tass.—The construction in the Soviet Union of orbital stations with changeable crews and of the freight ship Progress marks a step forward on mankind's way toward interplanetary travel. Soviet scientists regard such complexes as man's highway to outer space, Soviet Cosmonaut Aleksey Leonov writes in Pravda today. He was the first man in the history of astronautics to have made a space walk and took part as the commander of the Soviet crew in the Soyuz-Apollo test project (1975).
In Leonov's opinion stations similar to Salyut-6 may become "cosmodromes in orbit" launching sites, where cosmonauts will take part in putting together interplanetary ships and testing their systems and pass through a period of acclimatisation, so to say. It has been estimated that a journey to Mars and back will take two years and eight months. Such a long expedition will require not only technical preparation but also a solution of a number of other problems, Leonov writes. Then he touches upon such problems of long space flights as psychological compatibility of crew members and "sensory hunger."
In designing Soyuz spaceships and Salyut orbital stations Soviet specialists showed great concern for the cosmonauts. But still greater demands will naturally be made on the design of interplanetary ships, Aleksey Leonov writes. (Moscow Tass (in English), 0838 GMT, Oct. 25, 1978.)
The sixth representative of the "Salyut" family occupies a special place—it is the first second-generation station. Its operation has confirmed that it is feasible to carry out long expeditions^ and that it is possible in principle to change crews during a flight and to improve/the research program not only from one expedition to another, but also more flexibly during flights. The appearance of the extra docking unit which provided the maneuverability also prompts thoughts of a more general kind. Will blocks of stations joined together like a honeycomb emerge in the future? That is not impossible. At any rate, designers have food for thought here. Nevertheless, when you look to the future—and not such a distant future—and imagine the Salyuts of the next, the third generation, you do not see a simple increase in size as their main feature. In fact, this main feature has not been hidden from the designers view and is becoming increasingly marked with each station: we are striving to insure the maximum automation of on-board operations and to make them continuous. This is the main way of improving the stations.
I want to stress here that however fully we may succeed in automating the control of spacecraft, as the duration of flights increases, the role of the cosmonauts on board will become increasingly significant. For what purpose are we actually seeking to increase the duration of flights? To ascertain the potential for working and living in near-earth space. With time, that area of space will become a boundless field of practical activity. Then it will no longer be individual crews but large collectives of people who will have to work in space; and they will turn to the experience of the first long-term expeditions as a primary source.
In our work we proceed from the premise that the creation of long-term orbital stations is the main direction to be followed in the development of spaceflight. All the "Salyuts" from the first to the latest—the sixth—have demonstrated their ability to serve the most varied purposes and diverse sciences: astronomy and physics, geology and medicine, electronics and geography. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian) Nov. 4, 1978, by Prof. K. Feoktistov.)
A paper written in 1978 for the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences discussed the development of an emergency rescue capsule for orbital stations. Another paper discussed rescue in dense layers of the atmosphere.
Considerable attention is being devoted to flight safety in the design of all manned space systems [2]. In the future, when the duration of orbital station mis
sions will increase, and the increased activity of mankind in space will lead to multiple "earth to space station orbit" shuttle flight operations, it will not be expedient to execute the orbital mission with the shuttle craft docked with the station.
Along with this, because of the increased complexity of station systems and stuctures, the probability of the occurrence of emergency situations on board a space station is increased. In a number of cases, the docking of an orbital station to a shuttle rescue ship can prove to be impossible. For this reason, it is expedient to have independent means of safely returning the station crew by means of special space vehicles (capsules) along with the regular transport ships.
The results of planning and structural design work on a possible variant for a rescue capsule, located on board an orbital station, are given in this paper. The major function of the emergency rescue capsule consists in providing for the evacuation of the crew of the orbital space station in the case damage occurs which cannot be eliminated. (System for the Emergency Rescue of Cosmonauts from Orbital Stations [Saskos]. Moscow Trudy Odinnadtsatykh Chteniy, Posvyashchennykh Razrabotke Nauchnogo Naslediya I Razvitiyu Idey K. E. Tsiolkovskogo (Kaluga, 14-17 September 1976), Sektsiya "Problemy Raketnoy I Kosmicheskoy Tekhniki' in Russian, 1978, pp. 101-108. [Paper by Belonogov, Ye. K., Ivarovskiy, S. A., Grigorovich, V. K., Zatsepin, A. Y., Ignat'yev, V. V., Sokolov, V. A., Tarasov, V. N., and Minenko, V. Ye., USSR Academy of Sciences, Commission for the Development of the Scientific Heritage of K. E. Tsiolkovskiy). /
One of the important problems arising in investigating trajectories for the entry of hypersonic vehicles into the dense layers of the atmosphere is a reduction of the accelerations which arise. K. E. Tsiolkovskiy devoted great attention to the recovery of a vehicle and crew from the effect of accelerations in various flight stages. An effective means for reducing accelerations during atmospheric entry is improvement of descent module lift properties. A hypersonic vehicle with the aerodynamic quality K~l can glide in the atmosphere after descent from a satellite orbit with an acceleration not exceeding 1.5, and therefore, the entry of such a vehicle into the earth's atmosphere with a near-circular velocity is not critical from the point of view of the dynamic loads which arise. However, with a velocity much less than first cosmic velocity with aerodynamic quality the accelerations upon entry into the dense layers of the atmosphere may be not only greater than during descent from a satellite orbit, but may exceed the admissible level n,a.t3-4 by several times. In this paper the author examines the influence of changes in aerodynamic characteristics of the vehicle and initial conditions on the maximum acceleration during entry into the dense layers of the atmosphere.
Expressions are derived making it possible to evaluate the effectiveness of a change in initial conditions and control parameters for reducing the maximum velocity head. The article gives the results of computations of the influence of variation of initial conditions relative to the nominal conditions on the maximum acceleration nmax. Qualitative conclusions are drawn concerning the structure of optimum control of a descent module in the neighborhood of the initial point. It is shown that upon entry of hypersonic vehicles into the dense layers of the atmosphere with a subcircular velocity the acceleration which can arise may considerably exceed the admissible level. A method is proposed for evaluating the effectiveness of decreasing the maximum acceleration by means of aerodynamic control and change in the initial conditions. Figures 3; references 4: 3 Russian, 1 Western. (Recovery of Hypersonic Vehicles Entering Into the Dense Layers of the Atmosphere at a Subcircular Velocity. Moscow Trudy Odinnadtsatykh Chteniy, Posvyashchennykh Razrabotke Nauchnogo Naslediya I Razvitiyu Idey K. E. Tsiolkovskogo (Kaluga, 14-17 September 1976), Sektaiya "Problemy Raketnoy I Kosmicheskoy Tekhniki in Russian, 1978, pp. 90-99 Filat'yev, A. S.)
1979
A paper, written for the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences Commission for the Development of the Scientific Heritage of Tsiolkovskiy in 1979, discussed possible future interplanetary flights. Another paper discussed supplementary fuel possibilities for spacecraft.
A study was made of the problem of an interplanetary flight carried out with an intermediate flight around Mars or Venus. It is shown that a perturbation maneuver near these planets will make it possible to reduce energy expenditures and improve the kinematic characteristics of the trajectory. As the optimality criterion the authors employed the total characteristic velocity required for realization of the flight. As a result of the computations it was possible to find the total flight time and the optimum calendar times for the accomplishment of such flights. An evaluation of the effectiveness of correction of an Earth-Mars-Saturn trajectory is made. (Prediction of Some Schemes for Interplanetary Flights to the Outer Planets, Moscow Trudy 12-kh Chteniy, Posvyashch. Razrab. Nauch. Naslediya I Razvitiyu Idey K. E. Tsiolkovskogo, Kaluga, Sekts. Mekh. Kosmich. Poleta in Russian 1979, pp., 17-26 Leshchenko, A. V., Kotin, V. A., Papkov, 0. V. [From Referativnyy Zhurnal, 62. Issledovaniye Kosmicheskogo Prostranstva, Otdel'nvy Vypusk No. 10, 1979 Abstract No. 10.62.312 by V. Rudenko].)
The article discusses the problem of using the mass of waste water from the onboard systems of a space vehicle as a supplement to the main fuel components of an oxygen-hydrogen rocket engine. It is proposed that this ballast mass be diverted into the rocket engine combustion chamber. A functional diagram of the afterburning system is shown. An expression is derived for computing the decrease in the relative expenditure of components of the main fuel. The experimental results confirm a thrust increment with afterburning of the additional mass. (Energy Possibilities of a Space Vehicle Using Oxygen-Hydrogen Fuel, Moscow Trudy 12-kh Chteniy, Posvyashch. Razrab. Nauch. Naslediya I Razvitiyu Idey K. E. Tsiolkovskogo, Kaluga, 1977, Sekts. K. E. Tsiolkovskiy I Probl. Raket. I Kosmich. Tekhn. in Russian 1979, pp. 116-121 Zabotin, V. G., Levin, V. Ya., Pervyshin, A. N. [From Referativnyy Zhurnal, 62. Issledovaniye Kosmicheskogo Prostranstva, Otdel'nvy Vypusk No. 10, 1979, Abstract No. 10.62.365].)
Space oceanography has been developed to improve navigation and fishing, according to a February 14, 1979 article. The technical aspects of light absorption by the ocean were discussed in an April 1979 article.
The launching of the specialized oceanographic satellite "Cosmos-1076" is making it possible to check out the methods for investigating the world ocean using space
techniques. This experiment will make it possible to check out methods for complex synchronous measurements of hydrophysical parameters. The data obtained during flight from special control-calibration sea and ocean polygons will make it possible to evaluate the accuracy of remote measurements and "tie them in" to real physical processes.
The most important of the practical problems are an increase in the effectiveness of navigation and fishing. In the interests of navigation provision is made for the routine collection of hydrometeorological information from extensive areas of the world ocean. Data on the direction and velocity of the wind in the near-water layer, waves, on zones of generation and direction of movement of storms and hurricanes will help in selecting the optimum navigation routes. It is still more important to have routine information on ice conditions in the Arctic and Antarctic basins, and in particular, for year-round operation of the Northern Sea Route.
The determination of color and temperature anomalies at the ocean surface, according to data from remote sounding, will make it possible to refine the boundaries of frontal zones and other physical formations in the surface layer of the ocean, with which, as a rule, are associated regions which are promising for the fishing industry.
Experimental space oceanography is taking only the first steps. But it can be said with assurance that the means and methods for remote sounding from aboard space vehicles will give oceanologists a powerful tool capable of raising the study of the world ocean to a considerably higher level and making extensive use of these advances in the interests of the national economy of the country. (Commentary on "Cosmos-1076" Mission, Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Feb. 14, 1979, p. 6 [Article by B. Nelepo: "A Look at the Ocean from Orbit"].)
One of the principal directions in marine optics is a study of the properties of the substances constituting sea water by optical methods. In particular, this involves an analysis of the absorption spectra of different programs introducing a contribution to the total absorption of light by sea water. These spectra are obtained using such instruments as the "Volna" spectrophotometer, whose high-quality optical-electronic system makes possible reliable registry of the small absorption characteristic for sea water. But the relative error in measurements in the case of very small absorption is high, which is a result of the short length of the measurement base. An increase in this base is impossible, since this would require a considerable increase in the dimensions of the instrument. The absorption spectrum of sea suspension is obtained as the difference between the spectra of the absolute values of the absorption indices of sea water and its filtrates. For solving the problems in light field theory it is necessary to measure the absorption index \ directly at sea; in this case the requirements on measurement accuracy are low and it is sufficient to obtain \ values averaged for volumes with linear dimensions of the order of several tens of meters. For these purposes it is possible to use methods based on measurements of divergence of the light vector. The laser method makes it possible to obtain \ values for a fixed wavelength averaged for the surface layer of the sea with a thickness of several tens of meters. This method, being a noncontact method, makes it possible to obtain large volumes of data while the ship is on course. Selection of the working wavelength is dependent on the nature of the investigated object. For example, in a quantitative study of the distribution of chlorophyll in surface waters it is desirable to select A = 675 nm, which corresponds to the main maximum of chlorophyll absorption. (Determining Index of Light Absorption in Sea Water, Moscow, Okeanologiya (in Russian), vol. 19, No. 1, 1979, pp. 168-174 [Article by B. F. Kel'balikhanov, S. Yu. Rusanov and G. D. Shnyrev, Institute of Oceanology, "Methods for Determining the Index of Light Absorption in Sea Water"].)
Yuri Zaitsev commented on the future programs for the orbital space station in March 1979.
There has been discussion in Western scientific circles of Soviet plans to develop massive "factories in space," where such alloys and crystals would be produced. But Yuri Zaitsev, head of the Institute of Space Research at the Soviet Academy of Sciences, says such programs are far in the future.
"In the near future, work with manned flights will of course remain focused on long-life orbital stations with changing crews. "The design of the station and of the transport ships could be modified, but the principle will remain the same," Zaitsev said.
"Maybe as time passes orbital stations will become larger, but by how much is a moot point. In any case, large stations are hardly practical at the present stage. For the time being, it is more practical to employ comparatively small and cheap, but well-tested stations of the Salyut type, which offer broad possibilities for varying research programs." (By Colin Baker, Time-Life News Service, Moscow, Mar. 16, 1979.)
Several articles discussed the planned development of radio and gamma telescopes which could be used in space.
Is this a fantasy? Yes, but not completely without basis. After all, space vehicles have already blazed paths to Mercury, Venus, Mars and Jupiter. Plans call for flights to the more remote planets of the solar system. Entire scientific complexes are operating in circumterrestrial orbit. Astronomical observations are being made from these. Scientists are also planning to put in circumterrestrial orbits automatic telescopes which do not require the constant presence of man. In exactly the same way is it possible to put a telescope into orbit around the sun?
Existing space technology makes it possible to say seriously that in space it is possible to construct a telescope of any size. After all, weight does not exist there and it is technically feasible to assemble the necessary construction of any size from individual parts.
Visualize a radio telescope dish with a diameter, for example, of ten kilometers. In the focus of this space radio eye there will be vehicles receiving signals and transmitting them to earth. Also there is an apparatus controlling, by radio command from the earth, the shape of the dish itself, since each of its elements can be turned fully in the necessary direction.
Such will be the nature of the telescope planned by a group of Soviet scientists and will be encountered by the space traveler in circumsolar orbit in the not too distant future. The unusual conditions will enable man to make a detailed study of everything which is in our universe—through which even electromagnetic waves penetrate only in 20 billion years. (Sovetskaya Rossiya, Mar. 24, 1979.)
Soviet scientists plan to build a system of radio telescopes in outer space. Parts of the system will be launched into the sun's orbit by rockets, where they will dock with one another. The telescope systems thus formed will have a mirror dozens of kilometers in diameter. The systems will be separated from one another by a distance of thousands of millions of kilometers. This will make it possible to register radiation emanating from remote and small objects and measure the distance to them. Scientists hope that such a system of radio telescopes will help receive signals from extraterrestrial civilizations. Moscow, World Service (in English), 0430 GMT, Apr. 6, 1979.)
Soviet scientists plan to build a system of radio telescopes in outer space. Parta of the system will be launched into solar orbit by rockets, where they will dock with one another. The telescope systems thus formed will have a mirror dozens of kilometers in diameter. The systems will be separated from one another by a distance of thousands of millions of kilometers. This will make it possible to register radiation emanating from remote and small objects and measure the distance to them. Scientists hope that such a system of radio telescopes will help receive signals from extraterrestrial civilizations. (U.S.S.R. Plans Radio Telescope System in Space. Moscow, World Service (in English), 0430 GMT Apr. 6, 1979.)
Modern cosmonautics has exerted a substantial influence on the development of many branches of science, including the most ancient—astronomy. The possiblility of carrying out observations beyond the limits of the atmosphere has made it "omniwave." It is understandable that only investigations in the entire range of electromagnetic radiation can give a true idea concerning astrophysical processes. Evidence of this is the successes of infrared, ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy. And now a new direction is developing more and more actively—gamma astronomy.
However, the sensitivity, angular and energy resolution of existing gamma telescopes are inadequate for carrying out a broad search for new discrete sources and reliably tying them in to known astronomical objects. Therefore, the USSR Academy of Sciences, taking into account the great scientific and technical experience accumulated by Soviet scientists in the field of exoatmospheric investigations and space instrument making, has planned a program which is directed to the development of gamma astronomy observations in our country. In order to carry it out, a number of scientific research organizations, headed by the Space Research Institute USSR Academy of Sciences, have proceeded to the joint development and creation of a complex of measuring instrumentation, including a gamma telescope with a high sensitivity and a high angular resolution. The weight of the telescope is about r/2 tons.
It is clear that such a telescope can be installed and operated only on special space stations whose creation only a few years ago seemed dubious. However, now this problem no longer seems so unreal. The "Salyut-6" space station has been in orbit more than IVa years. Several crews have already worked aboard it and the "Soyuz" transport ships and the "Progress" freighters have been repeatedly docked to it. All this makes it possible to regard the elements of the "Salyut"-"Soyuz"- "Progress" complex as a prototype of a space platform for gamma astronomy observations. ( Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), Apr. 27, 1979, p. 3 [Article by V. Kirillov Ugryumov and A. Gal'per: " 'Yelena' and Others"].)
According to this April 1979 article, visual observations from the Salyut 6 can contribute to the space station program. The article also announced a planned global navigational space system.
In addition to photographing different sectors of the earth's surface the "Salyut-6 crew also made extensive use of visual observations. Whereas earlier such observations in many cases were of a facultative nature, now they are becoming one of the most important points in the program. It is well known that the human eye is capable of distinguishing hundreds and even thousands of color hues. But on brief flights the cosmonaut's vision does not succeed in adapting to such an extent that it could be classified as a reliable space tool. However, on longer flights the visual observations of the crew can be simply irreplaceable. The flier-cosmonaut V. Kovalenok notes, for example, that from orbit it is possible to see deep ocean ridges and submerged islands, which cannot be discovered even on an extremely sensitive photographic film. And since this is so, it is easy to visualize what enormous profit can come from a well-trained man with his capacity for routine selection of the object of observation, instantaneous processing of information and its analysis and rapid transmission of the already evaluated data to the earth.
A new page in the history of sea navigation was opened in 1978. The thousandth satellite of the "Cosmos" series was launched into orbit. This was a space navigation beacon by means of which it was possible, with a high degree of accuracy, to determine the geographical coordinates of its position at any point on the earth regardless of weather conditions. The signals received and processed by the shipboard apparatus make it possible to determine the position of a vessel relative to the satellite, its coordinates.
The first navigational satellite has already been of significant service to seamen, especially to the crew of the atomic-powered "Sibir'." A global navigational space system will evidently be created with time. This system includes several satellite-beacons moving in polar orbits, surface control-measurement centers and receiving-computing apparatus mounted on shipboard. It is believed that such a system is capable of replacing the enormous number of surface beacons now employed in marine navigation, will increase the accuracy of navigational measurements, and accordingly there will be an increase in the economy and safety of navigation. (Moscow, Sovetskiy Voyn (in Russian) Nov. 6, 1979, by A. Vlasov, in April 1979.)
In the May 19, 1979 "Pravda," R. Sagdeyev wrote about the future potential of manned orbital stations. The May 22, 1979 "Pravda" also contained an article on space stations. On June 20, 1979, Tass carried comments by Professor/Cosmonaut Feoktistov on future generations of the Salyut 6.
SPACE EXPERT EXAMINES USES FOR MANNED ORBITAL STATIONS
Under the heading "Laboratories in Orbit" a 1,200-word article by R. Sagdeyev, director of the USSR Academy of Sciences Space Research Institute, discussed the possible future use of manned orbital stations for astronomical and astrophysical research and noted the need to develop new highly reliable telescopes for this purpose. Sagdeyev then discussed the prospects of radioastronomy research from orbital stations and the potential for the development of space technology (obtaining various crystals under conditions of weightlessness) and finally mentioned the need to develop both multipurpose and specialized orbital stations. (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), May 19, 1979 p. 3.)
The Salyut-6 station is, of course, not the ideal environment for prolonged work in space. So far, it contains only the most essential equipment to enable a man to live and work. In the future, the stations will be complexes of much greater size, and greater comfort. But today we must obtain sufficient data so that the designers will be able to create the necessary comfort level in them for the crew. It is noisy in the Salyut-6 station. There are always dozens of fans running, apparatus being switched on and off. All this, the cosmonauts say, is the normal background to which they long adapted themselves. The doctors think otherwise. Noise has an effect on man which is partly independent of his awareness of it. (Moscow, Domestic Service (in Russian), 0200 GMT, May 22, 1979) [Unattributed commentary: "Today in Orbit"].
Moscow , June 20, Tass.—"In our work we proceed from the understanding that the creation of lasting orbital stations is the main line of the development of cosmonautics. All the Salyut stations, beginning from the first one to the present, sixth one, have demonstrated their ability to serve science for human benefit," Cosmonaut Konstantin Feoktistov said.
Speaking of the Salyut-6 orbital station which has been functioning in space for more than one year and a half. Professor Feoktistov pointed out: "On the whole we are satisfied with the work of the orbital complex."
In the family of the Salyut stations, the sixth one has taken a special place, in Feoktistov's view—this is the first station of the second generation. "The emergence of an additional docking unit which ensured a greater scope for manoeuvre suggests ideas of a more general aspect. Whether [as received] multiblock stations will appear in the future? Linked between themselves in the honeycomb fashion? [as re ceived] Well, it is not precluded. At all events, the designers have something to think about," he told journalists.
"And nevertheless, turning to the future, and not so distant one, and visualizing Salyut stations of the next, third, generation, one sees their main peculiarity not only in the increase of volume. The main peculiarity was not unknown to the designers earlier, and it becomes increasingly manifest from station to station: We seek to automatize to the maximum the working processes on board and make them continuous. This is the way to perfect the stations." (Moscow, Tass (in English), 0958 GMT June 20, 1979.)
July 18, 1979 Tass carried a discussion of radio telescopes.
Moscow , July 18, Tass.—Special Tass correspondent Nikolay Zheleznov reports from the Flight Control Centre: The first radio telescope was unfolded in orbit on July 18. It was installed aboard the Salyut-6 and its antenna was moved out into open space. Previously not a single spacecraft had on board such a big and sophisticated scientific instrrument. Why should scientists need a telescope at a height of 400 kilometres if it is known that the earth's atmosphere is transparent to most of the types of radiation? Answering this question Nilolay Kardashev, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences and one of the men in charge of the project, said that the further advance of science into the depth of universe is inconceivable without increasing the size of ground antennae.
Thanks to the pooling of efforts by radio astronomers of the USSR, the USA, Australia and other countries, it has been possible in recent years to conduct synchronous observations of remote galaxies with the help of radio telescopes separated by great distances, which offered a chance to increase, as it were, the area of antennae. The present event in orbit marks a new stage in the development of astrophysical methods. The KRT-10 radio telescope will be used together with the 70-metre Crimean radio telescope.
During synchronous radio sessions the distance between them will vary from 400 to 10,000 kilometres. Physicists have calculated that such a radio bridge will be equal to the possibilities of a radio telescope with a size comparable to the earth's diameter. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1947 GMT, July 18, 1979.)
August 17, 1979 Tass discussed the Isparitel space experiment which tested welding in weightless conditions.
KIEV , August 17, Tass.—Experiments on the Isparitel unit, held aboard the orbital Salyut-6 station by Cosmonauts Vladimir Lyakhov and Valery Ryumin have become a major stage in the development of the program of Soviet exploration in space technology. The new equipment designed for the study of processes of evaporation and condensation of different materials in conditions of weightlessness was designed at the Yevgeniy Paton Electrical-Welding Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukraine. The USSR's leading scientific-research welding and special electrometallurgy centre is known all over the world. In the recent time the centre spread the sphere of its explorations to outer space.
The task before us was to check the principled possibilities of different methods of welding in conditions of weightlessness, said Deputy Director of the Institute Daniil Dudko. The beginning was laid by the Vulkan unit, with the help of which Cosmonaut Valeriy Kubasov ten years ago conducted aboard the Soyuz-6 spaceship the first technological welding experiment in outer space.
The next stage was the designing of compact electrobeam "guns" for the space experiment Zarnitsa and for the Soviet-French project Araks. A soldering iron and a number of other tools for work aboard space stations were designed in collaboration with space explorers. Scientists of the institute participated in explorations in space technology of metals in the course of the Soviet-American Soyuz-Apollo experiment.
The new Isparitel unit made it possible to obtain new batches of specimens with silver coatings, which in the future will be subjected to special physical exploration. This experiment is of great significance for further exploration of outer space. During long operation of space stations and spaceships the need sometimes arises of restoring thermal protective, optical and other coatings which for different reasons lose their properties to that extent or other. Such an operation was held at the Salyut-4 station. The cosmonauts smelted with the help of strong current an aluminum ball and were able to improve the properties of the mirror of the orbital solar telescope.
The technology used in the Isparitel makes it possible in principle to apply coatings from different metals, alloys and even non-metallic materials. There is no doubt that this technology is in for a great future in outer space, the scientists said in conclusion. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 2022 GMT, August 17, 1979.)
A Tass statement and a speech by L. I. Brezhnev emphasized the importance of manned flight.
Of course, there is still a great deal to be done to improve working and living conditions in orbit. It is necessary, for instance, to pay special attention to improving conditions for sleep, the doctors say. The sport facilities in orbit, which were found to play a decisive part in preparing cosmonauts for return to the earth, need to be reorganized. In the long run it will be possible, perhaps, to turn the veloergometer into a real track bicycle so that cosmonauts could make circular runs inside a spacious cylinder. This will be possible to stimulate, if only insignificantly, a gravitation effect on the cosmonauts' organism, an effect that is badly needed by space travellers. (Moscow, Tass (in English), August 23, 1979, Nikolay Zhelenov.)
[Speech by Leonid Ilich Brezhnev, general secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and chairman of the Supreme Soviet Presidium on September 7 at Kremlin ceremony awarding medals to Cosmonauts Vladimir Lyakhov and Valeriy Ryumin]
Indeed, it is not for nothing that specialists in many countries are now talking about the presence of real conditions for a lengthy, perhaps even permanent activity by man in space, about how the basis is being created for future interstellar flights.
Dear Comrades Lyakhov and Ryumin: For successful fulfillment of the program of the longest space flight in history on board the Salyut-6-Soyuz orbital scientific research complex and the courage and heroism displayed during this you have been given the highest awards of the homeland. You have been awarded the titles of heroes of the Soviet Union with the presentation of orders of Lenin and gold star medals. Comrade Lyakhov has been awarded also the title of "Pilot Cosmonaut of the USSR." (Moscow, Pravda (in Russian), September 8, 1979, p. 1.)
Academician Paton noted three areas for development in Soviet space technology in an interview in October 1979.
From my point of view they (space technologies) will be developed along three basic directions. The first concerns construction and assembly operations in space. Already in the 1960's S. P. Korolev expressed the idea of using so-called "transforming" structures which are folded into small parcels on earth and then transported and deployed in space. Weightlessness creates some interesting possibilities here. Welding would be required in the assembly of such structures.
Weightlessness can also help in the creation of structures and compartments of future orbital stations made of very thin layered metal and even foil.
When all of this passes beyond the stage of laboratory testing and into practical cosmonautics on the scale of production (factories in orbit), the time will come for welding operations in space. And in the future the welding and cutting of metals and other materials will be required for distant interplanetary flights and then for building orbital living and production centers.
However, we will return to tasks closer at hand. The longer an orbital station is in operation, the more often restoration and repair problems will arise—this is the second direction in developing space technologies. It is better to restore units where they are functioning in space rather than to deliver new units from earth.
The third direction is the development of space technolgies that would make it possible to obtain unique materials in orbit. ( Kiev, Pravda Ukrainy (in Russian), Oct. 16, 1979, p. 3 [Interview with Boris Yevgen'yevich Paton, director of the Institute of Electrical Welding and president of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences Space Technologies"].)
Former cosmonaut Sevast'yanov discussed the future development of space stations in an interview in December 1979.
In near-earth orbits there will be scientific stations designed for studies of the earth and near-earth space as well as remote regions of the universe using astronomical instruments placed beyond the earth's atmosphere. These are geophysical stations. They will be able to study the earth's natural resources and monitor the natural environment. These will be manned laboratories where instrumentation can be refined to the point where all operations can be done automatically. And then there will be modular scientific stations. Each module will have its own special purpose. A module will be equipped with the apparatus necessary for a definite research program and will be delivered to a station composed of other compartments and modules, including living and sleeping quarters, etc. Throughout an expedition the modules could be exchanged. In overall size and volume each module would be like our Salyut station. This is the first direction.
The second is to solve technological questions—that is to say, technology in space and, in the future, factory-stations, on board which technological processes impossible under the conditions of gravity will be conducted. On these stations, for example, crystals needed for electronics will be grown.
In space we will be able to obtain super-pure pharmaceuticals. Another goal is to obtain composite alloys.
In near-earth orbits there will be atomic electric power stations and electric power stations with solar panels (converting solar energy into electricity and transitting this energy to earth perhaps by laser).
From these proposed directions it is evident that one of the major purposes for orbital stations is to serve man's economic activity. Tallin, Sovetskaya Estoniya (in Russian), Dec. 5, 1979, p. 3 [Interview with V. I. Sevast'yanov, USSR pilot-cosmonaut and candidate of technical sciences: "Earth—Space—Earth"].)
The development and importance of the radio telescope is again pointed out in this November 1979 article.
Associated with the flight of the "Salyut-6" orbital station is such an important success of Soviet space technology and radio electronics as the launching and unfolding in near-earth orbit of the KRT-10 radio telescope. Its very name stands for "space radio telescope with a 10-meter antenna." The unfolding of the KRT-10 space radio telescope is not only the first step in radio astronomy outside the atmosphere. It is also the beginning of a fundamentally new trend in work in space—the creation of sectional and folding structures, in particular, of such equipment as large antennas for various purposes.
An important contribution to the creation of large sectional structures in space will be made by cosmonauts. The EVA of V. V. Ryumin and V. A. Lyakhov and the work done by them have demonstrated that cosmonauts will play an important role in assembly, in investigations and in repair operations.
The complexities involved in constructing large space antennas do not appear to be insurmountable. Meanwhile the advantages of these antenna systems are attracting the very keen interest not only of radio astronomers, but of communications specialists, geophysicists and power engineers as well. This is a token of the fact that after the first step, after the creation of the first 10-meter radio telescope in the world, the KRT-10, there will follow further studies aimed at the creation of larger and further improved systems. ( Moscow Nauka I Zhizn' (in Russian), Nov. 11, 1979, pp. 2-6 [Article by Yu. Danilov, doctor of physical and mathematical sciences, Yu. Kuleshov, engineer, and V. Rudakov, candidate of technical sciences: "The First Space Radio Telescope"].)
Director of the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences, Sagdeyev speculated on future industrialization in space in a December 1979 interview.
In the past few years our country has taken a great step forward in the conquest of space. We have attained practically continuous manned operations in orbit; at the end of last year there was what I would call an explosion of new information on the chemistry of Venus; and there is an entire group of wonderful young scientists concentrating in the space sciences. Also among the most significant achievements is the sharp increase in the role of international cooperation in space research, which has been evident in the flights of the CEMA cosmonauts and in the cooperation with various other countries in the realization of scientific and technical programs in space, including the joint work with our French colleagues.
I am certain that in the next 5-10 years a vast amount of industrial activity will begin in orbit. Toward that end we must prepare not only technology but men as well. (Tallin, Sovetskaya Estoniya (in Russian), Dec. 7, 1979, p. 1 [ETA Report: "On Space Topics"].)
There is still another important factor which forces us not to hurry with the creation of large stations. I have in mind the disproportion between the rate of collection of scientific information and the rate of its processing. This is a matter of great concern to scientists, designers and cosmonauts. Now when a crew works aboard an orbital station for one month we obtain so much scientific information about the earth, its environment and natural resources that years are required for its processing. And the problem here is by no means a matter of miscalculations. It is simply that former data processing methods do not correspond to the new situations.
An increase in the useful life of orbital stations is inseparably associated with an increase in the reliability of all its systems, instruments and assemblies. This is no simple problem. Even on the earth not one machine operates continuously over the course of many months and years; it requires preventive maintenance and the replacement of parts. In space the situation is saved by the crew. It can be said with complete assurance that the prolonged operation of the "Salyut-6" station became possible only due to the consmonauts. It has no equal with respect to the volume of preventive maintenance and repair-restoration work carried out aboard it.
But in order for such work to be carried out effectively, the possibilities for reconstruction must be incorporated in advance in the design of the station and its equipment. Otherwise even the most experienced crew can do nothing.
Long-term observations of the ocean from space made it possible to establish the possibility of directing ships of the fishing fleet into regions where fish were plentiful. The first experiments indicated great promise and great material advantage. All this indicates that in the years immediately ahead there can be a considerable increase in the economic effectiveness of such investigations. This requires communication between the crews of orbital stations and ships at sea, a knowledge of their coordinates and the coordinates of the regions of fish concentration closest to them. ( Moscow, Vodnyy Transport (in Russian), Dec. 25, 1979, p. 3 [Article by M. Chernyshov: "They are studying the ocean from space"].)
B. Nelepo commented on the development of an automatic ocean surveillance system in a December 1979 interview. Nelepo was also interviewed for Aviation and Cosmonautics journal on ocean surveillance from space.
"In the end," B. Nelepo, director of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences' Marine Hydrophyscial Institute, added, "it all comes down to the development of a continuously operating automatic system for observing the ocean from space. Why is it of interest to study not only the ocean surface layer but its depths as well? And is it possible to look into [the depths]? When Vitaliy Sevast'yanov told specialists that from orbit he could see the Mid-Atlantic ridge, many were doubtful. Now it is well known that the ocean surface layer repeats the underwater relief, and that there are "rises" and "falls." Internal waves, which, as a rule, are propagated within the ocean depths but sometimes also emerge onto the surface, can serve as a kind of "projector" for studying the depths.
"In all, our task lies in learning to recognize the useful signals that the ocean sends to us. What kind of observations can be conducted, let's say, in the infrared range? In what cases would it be preferable to use radio waves? In what part of the spectrum would it be most advantageous to photograph with color film? All of these questions require a lot more work. The experience accumulated to date in this field is already extensive. In particular, the specialized oceanographic satellite "Cosmos-1076," which was launched not long ago, has yielded much useful information. Other space vehicles are also in operation. But in order to develop them further, the aid of our cosmonauts is unconditionally necessary."
The specialization of orbital stations will evidently follow as these problems are solved. The matter of including scientists and specialists in crews can arise in some
The mastery of space is occurring at a rapid rate. In principle it is already possible to realize projects for orbital stations with a crew of 10-20 or more men.
Should we not be concerned with such projects at the present time? Have the pos sibilities of existing stations been exhausted?
It seems that the economic and scientific-technical advantage of large stations for the time being still appears doubtful and the possibilities of our "Salyuts" are far from exhausted.
The "Salyut" stations are being improved simultaneously in several directions. Their operational and research capabilities are being expanded, their reliability is increasing and the conditions for life and work of the cosmonauts are improving. Progressively improved in design, they differ quite significantly. (Aviatsiya i Komonautika (Aviation and Cosmonautics) No. 12, Dec. 1, 1979, pp. 40-41.)
1980
On January 8, 1980 Tass carried a talk given by a Soviet scientist on the Soyuz-T spacecraft and its newest features.
Soyuz-T (is to be in) flight in tandem with the Salyut-6 station for several months. This is understandable. Before manufacturing such spacecraft in series the experts wanted to test all its systems and various dynamic operations. For example, shortly there is to be an orbit correction exercise. This will change the orbit of the entire complex, consisting of the docked Salyut station and Soyuz-T spacecraft. The exercise will reveal how much propellant is consumed by the craft s new propulsion system. The propulsion system is one of its new features. It is based on the same technical concept as is the propulsion system of the orbital station. The propellant tanks of the (cruise) engine and of the control and docking engine have been connected to form a single system. This makes it possible to use propellant supplies more flexibly. In the past, an over-expenditure of the propellant (in) the attitude control system could compel the (craft) to return to earth, even if there was still plenty of propellant in the (cruise) engine. In the new spacecraft this will not be so.
Another innovation is the on-board computer complex. It has taken over many of the duties that up to now have had to be discharged by the crew: Flight control, systems control and flight data treatment and transmission to earth. And another notable fea'-.cre: Once in orbit, Soyuz-T spread out the panels of its solar batteries. In the past, transport craft did not have such batteries. Now solar batteries have enhanced the new craft's energy potential. Its attitude control systems too have been improved, assuring more efficient (apposition) of the sun, the earth and stars, which is very important to space navigation. Other onboard systems have likewise been modified and the general layout inside in the craft has been improved.
As I said, the new craft is to be subjected to prolonged testing in space. The testing actually began with its launching. The new spacecraft took three days to link up with the station, but one day like a manned spacecraft and not two days like a progress unmanned series, [sentence as heard] During these three days specialists put it through its paces and tested its capacity for automatic maneuvers for ordering its attitude in space and for docking operations. Only after the designers had given it excellent marks for all these exercises was it allowed to link up with the Salyut 6 orbital station. Soyuz-T embodies many recent scientific and technological advances but this does not mean that the next manned flight will necessarily be made in these new craft. The previous Soyuz spacecraft—there have been more than 30 of them—acquitted themselves very well and they will continue to be used to carry cosmonauts into orbit in the immediate future. As for the present trial flight, it is a dress rehearsal with the spacecraft embodying many novel technical features. ( Moscow, World Service (in English), 1000 GMT, Jan. 8, 1980 [Talk by (Ryma Karleyeva) of the flight control center on the Soyuz-T; recorded in Russian fading to English translation].)
On January 17, 1980, Tass announced preparations for an international conference on navigation satellites.
Equipment for receiving navigational information via space satellites is being installed on merchant ships, fishing vessels, research vessels and other ships sailing in the waters of the Soviet Far East. Arkadi Lavrov, head of the Service of Security of Navigation in the Soviet Far East, told a Tass correspondent that the use of satellites sped up several times the delivery of information and improved the quality of communications. It no longer depends on ionospheric conditions. Preparations are underway in the USSR for the implementation of the international convention envisaging the setting up of a communications system with the use of satellites for the needs of navigation being created on the Soviet Union's initiative. Socialist, capitalist and developing countries are participants in the convention. Its implementation will make it possible to remove the danger of accidents and will make for more effective navigation of ships. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1053 GMT, Jan. 17, 1980.)
In January 1980, a French journal speculated on the future capabilities of the Salyut system. In February 1980, the journal interviewed Soviet cosmonaut Klimuk on the Soyuz-T.
The haste with which the Soviets want to know about the latest arrangements seems to reflect their desire to launch "Salyut 7" in a few months should the utilization of "Salyut 6" prove to be no longer possible—in order to prevent delays in the execution of their manned missions. . . . The utilization of such a "Soyuz" as the locomotive of a space train will appear to be natural. In the past we have denounced as illogical the operation to refuel "Salyut" from a supply vehicle so that "Salyut" engines can be used for trajectory maneuvers; the vehicle docked with "Salyut" can use the fuel much more simply in order to arrive at the same result.
Nonetheless we cannot help being struck by the hesitation of the Soviets for more than one year to use the propulsion system of "Salyut 6." This system is known to have malfunctioned in 1978: last February Lyakhov and Ryumin found a station fallen to 270 kilometers above the earth. They spent much effort to repair its propulsion system, or more exactly, its tank pressurization apparatus, in the course of a very long operation which at the time was presented as a success. But never since has the propulsion system of the "Salyut" station been utilized; the orbital station has never been put back into the planned orbit. The explanation may be that even though the propulsion system has been repaired, the Soviets still entertain some doubts as to its functioning in prolonged service. They are, therefore, intending to keep the equipment in good shape for the last operation, which will consist of making the station reenter through the atmosphere over the Pacific at the end of its career. (Parris, "Air and Cosmos" (in French), Jan. 26, 1980 by Albert Ducrocq.)
Soviet cosmonaut Petr Klimuk revealed in an interview with Air & Cosmos correspondent Pierre Langereux some new information about the Soyuz-T transport ship and Soviet intentions for its use as part of the total Salyut-Soyuz system.
First he noted that Soyuz-T has been designed to serve as either a freight transport ship or as a manned transport carrying two cosmonauts, "as has become the rule on Soviet transport vehicles."
Emphasizing that "in the immediate future Soyuz-T will not totally replace" the conventional Soyuz, Klimuk indicated that the USSR will continue to make use of all three types of transport ships at its disposal: Progress, Soyuz and Soyuz-T. The new Soyuz-T could be piloted by an all-Soviet crew only whereas the conventional Soyuz, in which the role of "pilot" is rather limited, will continue to fly international crews. The reason for maintaining this duality, according to Klimuk, lies in the time necessary to train cosmonauts to fly Soyuz-T: at least 1 year's training with the fight simulator will be required (and Klimuk, an experienced cosmonaut said that it took him about 1 1/2 years to master the new vehicle).
Soyuz_T incorporates some very clear improvements over the conventional Soyuz ship although its exterior design and total mass have been changed relatively little According to Klimuk, the two most insignificant improvements are in piloting the vehicle (thanks to an on-board digital computer which processes all flight operations data and displays them on a single screen) and in the ship's maneuvering capabilities (thanks, in large part, to the unified propulsion system similar to that of the second generation Salyut station).
Klimuk also revealed that the ship's autonomous night mode was improved with the possibility of equipping the new vehicle with solar panels." In saying that the use of solar panels was not for the present foreseen because the transport ship could rely on energy provided by the Salyut-6 station, he contradicted earlier comments made by former cosmonaut and chief Salyut designer Konstantin Feoktistov who had indicated to Soviet central press correspondents that Soyuz-T was now equipped with two solar ,wings" [see Izvestiya Dec. 21, 1979, p. 6, Pravda Dec. 20, 1979, p 6 and Trud Dec 20, 1979, p. 6, reported in JPRS 75111]. ( Paris, Air & Cosmos (in French), No. 800 Feb. 16, 1980, pp. 50-51 [Article by Pierre Langereux: "New Rev elations About the Soyuz-T Vehicle"].)
On February 25, 1980, Tass carried a description of improvements in sea communication with the use of satellites.
Moscow , February 25, Tass.—A program for a broad use of spacecraft for sea communication and shipping has been outlined in the Soviet Union. With this aim a system is created providing for the use of artificial earth satellites of the Cosmos type. An all-union Morsvyazsputnik (sea communication satellite) organization has been set up under the USSR Ministry of Merchant Marine. It will be charged with processing data received by means of Soviet and international artificial earth satellites necessary for ensuring communication and navigation on high seas The satellite system will eliminate breaks of many hours in radio-communication between sea-going ships and ports caused by magnetic storms and other radio interference the ship-satelhte-ground station" radio bridge will speedily and effectively link subscribers.
Already now, big Soviet ships under construction are equipped with satellite communication apparatuses, due to which the control of ship traffic will be more effective in future. The communication system will be used also in navigation. Satellites may become outer space beacons. The USSR is a member of the INMARSAT international satellite communication organization, which was set up recently. The convention on its establishment came into force in July last year. The aim of INMARSAT is the control of a system, which is to be created on an international basis for ensuring communication between sea-going vessels and coast by means of space satellites. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1334 GMT, Feb. 25, 1980.)
Cosmonaut Kobasov discussed scientific advances on the Salyut 6 space station in his April 26, 1980 "Pravda" article.
The further development of cosmonautics will undoubtedly be coupled with the construction in near space of large objects such as base orbital stations with large crews, giant radio-telescope antennas, solar power engineering systems, interplanetary ships with an extended operating period, and so on. This presents space technology with a limitless field of activity.
Even the most preliminary technical and economic calculations show that repairing objects that are permanently in space will make it possible to achieve a substantial increase in their service life and the reliability of their normal functioning and correspondingly, the effectiveness of their utilization. This, in particular, is indicated graphically by the experience gained during the extended operation of the balyut-6 station, on which the eighth crew is now working. By the way, L. Popov and V. Ryumin have used considerable knowledge and exerted much effort on preventive maintenance of the station. (Pravda (in Russian), Apr. 26, 1980, by Cosmonaut V. Kobasov.)
A member of the Academy of Sciences wrote about the methods used to study the Earth's surface and atmosphere from space.
The use of the microwave range of radio waves for observing the earth from space considerably supplements optical and IR observation methods and in some cases is superior to these methods. The advantages are attributable to the specific properties of the interaction between microwaves and the environment. Radio waves in the centimeter and especially in the decimeter ranges are virtually not absorbed and are not scattered by clouds, so that these radio observations can be considered all weather. Due to the relatively small absorption in the ground, snow and ice, radio observations make it possible to "look" into the earth, in the future to depths of several tens and possibly hundreds of meters. In some cases observations in the radio range make it possible to avoid the screening effect of vegetation. Active and passive methods are discussed, including the fundamental physical principles. The results of a number of experiments are presented. Together with the data obtained by other methods, the data from radio observations can be used in meteorology, oceanography, in the study of ice and snow covers, in geology, agriculture and forestry, land improvement, water management and other fields. Appropriate instrumentation will be carried aboard both satellites and aircraft. A major problem in this field is that of spatial resolution. At present this resolution is inadequate and must be increased by considerably enlarging the antenna to several tens of meters or by employing special methods for shaping and processing signals, which is not possible in all cases. In the immediate future the microwave range will be used in . . . (Moscow Issledovaniye Zemli Iz Kosmosa (in Russian), Nov. 1, 1980, pp. 95-105 [Article by N. A. Armand, Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics USSR Academy of Sciences].)
This May 23, 1980 news item explored the possible benefits of developing a separate greenhouse on the space stations.
In the opinion of specialists the definitive solution to the problem lies in creating on board a biologically closed cycle. For this purpose it is essential to get not only the higher plants but also algae and even some microorganisms to function and develop normally in space. An experiment has already been performed aboard the station with chlorella, which is the main contender for the role of the fundamental link in a system for biological cleansing of the atmosphere. Scientists believe that basically the conditions for long-term operation of the station do not hinder the vital activities of chlorella. But a few anomalies do persist and these must be cleared up.
The following idea is being put forward. Plants and other biological subjects should not be located in the station itself but rather a special module should be developed for this, along the lines of the progress specialized cargo craft. Such a greenhouse attached to the station could function for quite a long time providing cosmonauts with air, water and food. (Moscow, Domestic Service (in Russian), 0000 GMT, May 23, 1980.)
Lt. Gen. Shatalov gave an interview in June 1980 on the future of manned space missions.
Lt. Gen. Vladimir Shatalov, leader of the cosmonaut training programme, gave an interview to Hungarian journalists on the future of space flights. As he said, Soviet scientists and specialists have for long been dealing with questions of further development and have designated a number of directions and tasks for the coming years.
The first such task is increasing the capacity of the spaceship. The spaceship can at present seat only two cosmonauts thus on the space station—which is large enough for a crew of many more cosmonauts—only the constant two-member crew and at the most two visitors, can work. A very great stress and burden falls in this way on the members of the constant crew and besides this there is no possibility for researchers of special qualifications to work in the space station for a long time. At present both cosmonauts have to be familiar with the operation and guidance of the spaceship—because of light security reasons—in roughly the same way.
If for example spaceships with three cosmonauts will be launched, the third cosmonaut can be such a specialist who will have to deal with these factors only in a minimal degree, and who can thus devote the majority of his time to specialized research. (Budapest MTI (in English), 1100 GMT June 5, 1980, Budapest, June 5 (MTI)—Csaba Kis, MTI's correspondent in Moscow reports.)
According to this Wall Street Journal editorial, the Soviet Union announced it had a satellite that was invisible to radar detection in 1980.
SOVIET STEALTH
The recently announced "new" stealth technology for making aircraft invisible to radar is neither new nor proprietary with the U.S. military.
In mid-summer of 1962 the Soviet Union made a public announcement that it was launching a Cosmos earth-orbiting satellite which would be invisible to radar detection. The satellite was successfully launched and it carried on board a radio transmitter which could be used to confirm that it was in orbit.
The Sohio radio satellite tracking station under my direction in Cleveland successfully tracked this device by its radio beacon for several weeks and obtained good orbital elements. NORAD, whose responsibility it is to maintain surveillance of orbiting satellites and missiles, learned of Sohio's successful measurements. They requested the radio tracking information and got it. Normally radio tracking data are not needed by NORAD unless radar and optical methods prove ineffective. Apparently this was the case. After approximately two months the radio transmitter in the satellite ceased to operate and the space vehicle became invisible to all methods of tracking.
The recent boastful announcements by Defense Secretary Brown make me feel very insecure because I know the Soviets publicly demonstrated a radar-invisible earth-orbiting satellite 18 years ago.
A.L. JONES.
(Cleveland Wall Street Journal, Sept. 15, 1980.)
Tass described metallurgical experiments conducted on board the Salyut 6 which could lead to repair and construction work in space.
KIEV, November 27, Tass.—Soviet specialists can if necessary apply thermal protective, optical and other coatings on various equipment in space as well as to obtain materials and articles by evaporation and condensation methods. This conclusion has been drawn by the scientists of the Yevgeniy Paton Electric Welding Institute of the Ukraine Academy of Sciences. They have summed up the preliminary results of the space experiment which was carried out recently on the installation "Isparitel" (evaporator) which they created.
The reliable functioning of the "Isparitel" on board the station Salyut-6 and the practical results of the experiment substantiate our assertion, Academician Daniil Dudko, deputy director of the institute, told a Tass correspondent. Specimens of coatings out of gold, silver, copper and other metals applied onto plates by the spaceflight participants Leonid Popov and Valeriy Ryumin have been brought back to earth.
Sufficiently high quality of the coatings confirms the correctness of the scientific ideas of the Soviet researchers, the academician stressed. Weightlessnesss proved most troublesome for the researchers. It is not an easy thing to evaporate metal. It is necessary to turn it into liquid which is to be converted into metallised vapours in space and to be uniformly deposited onto a surface. To keep liquid metal in the crucible is difficult, too. Nevertheless the problems have been solved and the space vacuum which exceeded by several orders the one that has been artificially created on earth served as an ideal medium for the realisation of the technological process.
The experiment in space was a kind of prologue not only to a number of repairing-restorative operations but also to assembly work in space, Daniil Dudko said. The scientists foresee a possibility of delivery of metals, and plastics to orbit and of their conversion into thin-walled elements which will serve as building blocks of Hying laboratories and, in the future, whole factories for the production of unmatched materials. (Moscow, Tass (in English), 1300 GMT, Nov. 27, 1980.)
References:
A. SOVIET SPACE PROGRAMS: 1976-80, SUPPORTING VEHICLES AND LAUNCH VEHICLES, POLITICAL GOALS AND PURPOSES, INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SPACE, ADMINISTRATION, RE-SOURCE BURDEN, FUTURE OUTLOOK PREPARED AT THE REQUEST OF HON. BOB PACKWOOD, Chairman, COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE, SCIENCE, AND TRANSPORTATION, UNITED STATES SENATE, Part 1, Dec. 1982.
