Foundations On Sand: An Analysis Of The First
United States
Occupation
Of Haiti 1915-1934
CSC
95
SUBJECT
AREA - Foreign Policy
United States Marine Corps
Command and Staff College
Quantico, VA
22134
Foundations on Sand
An Analysis of the First United States
Occupation of Haiti
1915 - 1934
with
Supporting Documents
by Peter L. Bunce
Conference Group 10
June 5, 1995
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Title:
Foundations on Sand, An Analysis of the First United States Occupation
of Haiti, 1915-1934.
Author:
Peter L. Bunce, GS-13.
Thesis:
The first United States Occupation of Haiti, after a slow start, made a
great variety of capital improvements for Haiti, made changes in the Haitian
political system, and refinanced the Haitian economy, none of which had much
lasting impact on the Haiti people once the occupation was terminated.
Background:
The United States occupied Haiti originally to restore public order in
1915. It's self-imposed mandate quickly
expanded to reestablishing Haitian credit in the international credit system,
establishing good government and public order, and promoting investment in
Haitian agriculture and industry. After
a slow start, marred by a brutal revolt in 1918-20, the United States
Occupation of Haiti was reorganized and began to address many of the perceived
shortcomings of Haitian society. Its
international and internal debt was refinanced, substantial public works
projects completed, a comprehensive hospital system established, a national
constabulary (the Gendarmerie [later Garde] d'Haiti) officered and trained by
Marines, and several peaceful transitions of national authority were
accomplished under American tutelage.
After new civil unrest in 1929, the United States came to an agreement
to end the Occupation before its Treaty-mandated termination in 1936. Once the Americans departed in 1934, Haiti
reverted to its former state of various groups competing for national power to
enrich themselves. Almost all changes
the American Occupation attempted to accomplish failed in Haiti because they
did not take into consideration the Haitian political and social culture.
Recommendation: Before the United States intervenes in foreign countries,
particularly in those where nation-building improvements are to be attempted,
the political and social cultures of those countries must be taken into
consideration.
Contents
Part
I, The Occupation
1
Haiti Before the Occupation 1
Off to a Rough Start
17
Smooth(er) Sailing 22
Haitianization 26
Aftermath 27
Part
II, An Analysis of the Occupation
32
Goals of the Occupation 32
Imperialism and Racism 38
Culture 49
Part
III, The Never-ending Story
54
Annexes 57
Annex A: The US Marine Corps' Military
Campaigns
in the First United States
Occupation
of Haiti
57
Appendix
1: First Provisional Brigade of Marines
66
Appendix
2: Ships of the 1915 Haitian Campaign
73
Appendix
3: The Gendarmerie (Garde) d'Haiti,
1915-1934 74
Annex B: The Fiscal Case for Occupation 79
Appendix
1: Public Debt of Haiti, 1919 vs. 1922.
91
Appendix
2: Import and Export Figures, Fiscal
Year
1918-19.
96
Appendix
3: Haitian Government Expenses since
Fiscal
Year 1914-15. 97
Annex C: Documents Relating to the United States Occupation
of Haiti, 1915 - 1934.
99
Appendix
1: Admiral Caperton's Original
Instructions
for Haiti 101
Appendix
2: The Evolution of Admiral Caperton's
Authorization to
Land Troops in Haiti 102
Appendix
3: Admiral Caperton's Campaign Guidance
to 1st Provisional Brigade of Marines 106
Appendix
4, The United States Take-Over of Haitian
Customs, Financial, and Civil Administration 110
Appendix
5: Proclamation of Martial Law in Haiti 120
Appendix
6: The 1915 Haitian-American Treaty,
with
Extension
124
Appendix
7: The 1916 Gendarmerie Agreement and
Supporting Documents 129
Appendix
8: President Dartiguenave's Decrees of
5 April 1916 142
Appendix
9: The 1918 Haitian Constitution
(Marine Corps
Translation) 146
Appendix
10: The Official Report of the Death of
Charlemagne 167
Appendix
11: Major General Commandant Barnett's
Initial
Correspondence About Alleged Indiscriminate
Killings of Haitians 169
Appendix
12: Results of Major General Commandant
Lejeune's Investigation into Alleged Indiscriminate
Killings of Haitians. 176
Appendix
13: Report of the Mayo Court of
Inquiry, the
Final Report on Caco Casualties, and Reports of
Military Justice Proceedings 184
Appendix
14: Correspondence Between the
Commandant
of the Gendarmerie d'Haiti and the Financial Advisor
to the Republic of Haiti Regarding Changes in the
1916 Gendarmerie Agreement 299
Appendix
15: Diplomatic Messages Concerning Legislative
Elections in Haiti, 1921 210
Appendix
16: State Department Memo to President
Harding Regarding Progress of the US
Occupation of Haiti 215
Appendix
17:
The 1922-23 Haitian Loan Plan
225
Appendix
18: The 1925 Gendarmerie Agreement
231
Appendix
19: Haitianization and Withdrawal
Agreements 235
Endnotes 247
Bibliography
266
Dramatis Personae
(Presented Alphabetically)
George Barnett Major
General Commandant of the Marine
BrigGen, USMC Corps, 1914-1920; initiated first
investigation
into corvée
abuses in Haiti.
Benoit Batraville Caco
chief Charlemagne's ministre en chef
a. k. a. "Benoit" (see below), he
maintained Charlemagne's
revolt after his death in 1919;
alleged
cannibal
and bocor (voodoo wizard); killed
in
an ambush in 1920.
Arthur Bailly-Blanchard American Minister (Ambassador) to
Haiti,
1914-1922.
Dr. Rosalvo Bobo Chief challenger to
President Vilbrun
Guillaume Sam (see below) in July
1915;
one of the few serious challengers
to the
Haitian Presidency in the1911-1915
period
not to have succeeded to the
Presidency
(courtesy US Marine Corps).
Louis Borno Haitian Minister of Foreign Affairs under
Dartiguenave (below) who signed the
American-
Haitian Treaty of 1915 that
justified
the American occupation of Haiti.
President of Haiti, 1924-1930.
Smedley D. Butler Battalion commander, 1st Regiment of
Maj (later LtCol, BrigGen), USMC Marines, 1915; First commandant of the
Gendarmerie d'Haiti, 1915-1918;
returned to
Haiti in 1920 to assist General
Lejeune's
corvée
investigations.
William B. Caperton Commander,
Cruiser Squadron, Atlantic
Rear Admiral, USN Fleet in 1915; senior US officer in
the initial
occupation
of Haiti
Charlemagne Massena Peralte Member of the Haitian elite turned
Caco
a. k. a."Charlemagne" chief,
led Caco revolt in northern Haiti in
1918-1919
until his death in late 1919.
Philippe Sudre Dartiguenave President of Haitian Senate in July
1915,
was
elected first Haitian President of the US
Occupation period in August 1915 (courtesy
US Marine Corps). Forced to stand down in
favor of Louis Borno in 1924.
Josephus Daniels Secretary of the Navy, 1913-1921; later
Ambassador to Mexico. Perhaps best
known for the order making all U.S.
Navy
ships
"dry," anticipating Prohibition.
Robert B. Davis, Jr. United
States Chargé d'Affaires in Port au
Prince
at the time of the original
intervention. His cablegrams were
instrumental
in bringing Admiral Caperton
from
Cap Haitien to Port au Prince in July
1915 and landing troops. Also the U. S.
Plenipotentary in the 1915 American
-Haitian
Treaty that justified the American
occupation
of Haiti.
Warren G. Harding President of the United States,
1921-1923.
Herbert Hoover President of the United States, 1929-1933.
Charles E. Hughes US Secretary of State, 1921-1925; later
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.
Robert Lansing US Secretary of State, 1915-1920.
John A. Lejeune Assistant to the Commandant, 1915-1917;
Col (later MajGen), USMC Major General Commandant, 1920-1924.
John A. McIlhenny Financial
Advisor to the Republic of Haiti
(nominated by the President of the United
States,
appointed by the President of Haiti),
1919-1922.
Dr. Dana G. Munro US Minister (Ambassador) to Haiti,
1930-
1933. Later Professor of Laitn American
History
and Affairs at Princeton; author of
several
books on United States policy and
the
Caribbean.
Eugene Roy President
of Haiti, 1930. Succeeded Borno,
who
was forced into retirement;
outmaneuvered
in Haitian legislature by
Stenio
Vincent.
John H. Russell Commander,
1st Brigade 1917-1918 and
Col. (later BrigGen), USMC 1919-1922, United States High
Commissioner
in Haiti, 1922-1930; later
Major
General commandant of the
Marine
Corps.
Vilbrun Guillaume Sam Last "President" of Haiti prior to the US a. k.
a.k.a. "Guillaume Sam" occupation. Killed by a mob of the Haitian
elite
in Jul 1915, his body was later dragged
through
the street; the US intervened the
next
day.
Stenio Vincent Haitian
President 1930-1941; virtual dictator
1938-1941.