The Falkland Islands War: Winning With Infantry AUTHOR - Major Vincent R. Leone, Jr., USMC CSC 1991 SUBJECT AREA - Operations EXECUTIVE SUMMARY TITLE: THE FALKLAND ISLANDS WAR: WINNING WITH INFANTRY I. INTRODUCTION: The Falkland Islands War was the first amphibious and naval air war conducted in the missile age. Both sides were equipped with similar high-tech weapons which produced significant ship and aircraft loses. However, in an age of high performance aircraft, missiles, and nuclear submarines, the decisive battles were determined, not by modern weapons, but by infantry closing with and destroying the enemy with rifle and bayonet. II. GENERAL: On 2 April 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, located 300 miles off the mainland. The claim to the islands has been in dispute for 150 years. The islands were easily seized since the defense force numbered only 79 British Royal Marines. The British responded by putting together an amphibious task force and landed at Port San Carlos, on 21 May 1982. Lacking air superiority, and helicopter assets, most of the landing force had to go on foot to attack the key mountains to the west of the main Argentinian force in Stanley. After several successful night attacks, through tough terrain and mine fields, the British captured the approaches to Stanley. The Argentinians saw that they could not match the fighting spirit of the British infantry and surrendered on 14 June 1982. III. CONCLUSION: Old lessons were relearned in the Falkland Islands War. It showed that good training is the best weapon of the infantryman and that supporting arms can be the decisive factor in allowing infantry to accomplish its mission. It is significant that in this age of increased mobility, the ability to move over land by foot became the tactical advantage of the war. THE FALKLAND ISLANDS WAR: WINNING WITH INFANTRY OUTLINE Thesis Statement: In an age of electronic warfare, missiles, high performance aircraft, and nuclear submarines, the decisive battles of the Falkland Islands war were determined, not by modern technology, but by infantry closing with and destroying the enemy with rifle and bayonet. I. Falkland Islands War A. Historical Background B. Reasons for War II. Falkland Islands Orientation A. Population B. Terrain C. Weather III. Military Situation A. Britain B. Argentina IV. Military Operations A. Pebble Island B. Goose Green C. Stanley V. Lessons Learned THE FALKLAND ISLANDS WAR: WINNING WITH INFANTRY The Falkland Islands War was the first amphibious and naval air war conducted in the missile age. Both sides were equipped with similar high-tech weapons which produced significant ship and aircraft loses. However, the weapons used most looked very familiar from World War II. Rifles, machine guns, mortars, artillery, and even bayonets were the weapons of the day. Even modern main battle tanks had no place in this conflict. The decisive battles of the Falkland Islands War were determined, not by modern technology, but by infantry closing with and destroying the enemy with rifle and bayonet. The Falkland Islands have a long record of settlement and disputed claims. They were first discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, in 1592, and have been occupied at various times by England, France, Spain, and, Argentina. In 1764, French settlers landed in East Falkland, while in 1765, Captain John Byron claimed the islands for Great Britain and left a small party in West Falkland In 1766, the French settlers under pressure from Spain withdrew. In 1771, Spain accepted the British claim. The British abandoned the islands three years latter, but reoccupied them in 1833. Argentine claims stem from rights inherited from Spain which asserts to have discovered the islands known to them as the Islas Malvinas in 1520. They state that the British withdrawal in 1774 fulfilled a secret oral agreement to concede Spanish sovereignty over the islands. The Spanish built houses and fortifications on the islands, but abandoned them in 1829. In 1829, the new Republic of Buenos Aires, later to become Argentina, sent Louis Vernet to the islands to develop a colony in its name. Two years latter, Vernet seized three United States sealing vessels which were operating off the coast of the Falklands. This brought down the corvette USS Lexington, which bombarded the settlement forcing its evacuation. The British however, never renounced their claim and resumed official occupation in 1833. The colony was established under naval military rule until 1841, when a civil administrator was appointed by the British government. This has been the situation ever since. The modern dispute goes back to 1965 when the United Nations General Assembly asked the British and Argentinians to hold talks to find a peaceful solution to their claims on the islands. Talks were held every year without success. In 1976, the Argentinians illegally established a scientific research station on South Thule Island, 900 miles to the east of the Falklands and part of the Falkland Island Dependency under British rule. The British made several protests and both countries recalled their ambassadors. The dispute lapsed and ties were reestablished in 1980. The Argentinians however, never forgot about the Falklands. In a long article in a leading Buenos Aires newspaper in January 1982, Argentine President Galtieri told how he promised to possess the Malvinas before 3 January 1983, the 150th anniversary of the British settlement.[3:11] The British Foreign Office considered the threat as limited. They felt that the Argentinians had been complaining about the Falklands for over a century and had never done anything about it. The theory was that the Argentinians had enough problems at home with internal dissent and runaway inflation. War was the last thing they needed. In fact, President Galtieri felt that he needed a diversion from the problems at home and an invasion of the Malvinas to enforce their claim could unite the country. [5:36] Events leading up to the Argentinian invasion started on 18 March 1982. Constantine Davidoff, a Greek, Argentine scrap metal merchant, landed on South Georgia Island, located 800 miles east of the Falklands, with a contract to dismember the old whaling station. They set up camp and raised the Argentinian flag. The British Antarctic Service scientists on the island informed the Argentinians that they would have to leave until permission was granted from the British Base Commander to land. The scrap metal party departed but left behind twelve workmen. When a diplomatic protest was made to the Argentine Government on 22 March,it was met with indifference. On 24 March, twenty-two Royal Marines were landed to remove the workers. President Galtieri now felt that he had an incident which would suffice for invading the Falklands.[5:40] On the morning of 2 April 1982, the 1060 people of the Falkland Island's capitol of Stanley were awaken by the sound of gunfire. An invasion had begun that had been feared intermittently for 149 years. The first noises came from Argentinian commandoes who seized an empty marine barracks under the cover of darkness. At the same time, other commandoes surrounded Government House where the main marine defenses were set in. At dawn, the landing force came ashore. Opposing the invasion force were seventy-nine Royal Marines. Although surprised at first, the tough Marines fought back for three hours killing some Argentinians without loosing a man. In a hopeless position and fearing a massacre, the Governor ordered the Marines to surrender. The next day on 3 April, another Argentinian invasion force appeared at South Georgia Island. Twenty-two Royal Marines waged a seven-hour battle killing three Argentinians before surrendering.[3:3] The Falkland Islands are a British Crown colony which lie strategically about 300 miles from the entrance to the Strait of Magellan in the South Atlantic Ocean. The group of islands include two large islands, East Falkland and West Falkland, and about 200 other smaller islands. The total area these islands comprise is 4618 square miles. The capital is Stanley on the eastern tip of East Falkland. The population of 1800 is composed mainly of descendents of early Irish and Scottish settlers, most of which live in Stanley. The principle occupation of the islanders is sheep herding conducted by large company owned ranches operated by resident managers. Almost all food, clothing, and wood is imported. The terrain of the islands is rolling and treeless covered with scanty grasses and scattered large peat bogs. Camouflage and concealment is difficult. The ground during the winter is sodden, alternated by tufts of grass and covered with brackish water. Movement for heavily weighted down infantrymen is slow and exhausting, especially at night. On higher ground, the slopes are slippery and rock-runs on the crests extend for miles, also impeding movement. Some extremely rugged mountains rise up through the bog. The highest on East Falkland is Mount Osborne at 2000 feet. The water table lies a few inches below the surface of the ground and digging a fighting hole results in a water filled ditch. Some streams provide drinkable water. The coastline is jagged and made up of deep fiords of glacial origin. Movement around the islands by boat is easy. The road network is poor, with no roads existing beyond Stanley. Trails connecting the outlying settlements are only passable in the winter by tracked vehicles. Visibility is outstanding during good weather due to the lack of air pollution. The South Atlantic climate during the winter is challenging. The Falkland has a chilly, damp climate with temperatures averaging 37 degrees Fahrenheit. Light, drizzly rains are frequent and occur two out of every three days, all year. Winds blow continuously and change direction and intensity. Periods of rain, snow, fog, and sun change rapidly. The warmth of an out break of sunshine is limited, giving few opportunities for troops to warm up and dry out. The British amphibious task force set sail from Portsmouth Harbor, England on 5 April 1982, three days after the Argentinian invasion. With the carriers Invincible and Hermes in the lead, it headed for Ascension Island, located 3340 miles from the Falklands. There the task force would combat load the hastily embarked gear. The landing force consisted of 4800 troops made up of 3 Commando Brigade, Royal Marines. Units included the 40, 42, 45, Commando; Second and Third Battalions, The Parachute Regiment; detachments of the Special Air Service (SAS) and Special Boat Service (SBS) eight light Scorpion and Scimitar tanks; and eighteen 105mm light artillery guns. Sea Harrier jets and Sea King, Wessex, and Chinook helicopters would be in support. Once in the Atlantic, the carriers were joined by destroyers, frigates, and support vessels until the fleet numbered nearly 30 ships. This force would ultimately rise to over one-hundred ships, forming the largest British armada since World War II. In addition to war ships, the Navy was relying heavily on the Royal Fleet Auxiliary Service. The education ship Uganda was taken over and rapidly turned into a 1000 bed hospital ship. The 1600 passenger cruise ship Canberra became a troop and supply ship. This transition included erecting two helicopter landing spots over a swimming pool and one on top of the ward room. Many desirable assets were omitted due to lack of space. The most significant of these were Remote Piloted Vehicles (RPV) and 155mm howitzers. The RPV's would have given a real time aerial reconnaissance ability. The 155mm guns would have been useful with their longer range and greater punch. However, the logistical support to use these guns would have been unattainable. Argentina had deployed 9000-11000 troops to the Flaklands and had almost two months to construct the defenses of the island. The defenses were oriented around Stanley with the Argentinians figuring it was the best place for an amphibious assault. Many Argentinians were conscripts and evidence shows that although weapons and equipment were plentiful, troops were poorly trained in using and maintaining it. Fire support consisted of 155mm and lO5mm howitzers, 105mm recoilless rifles, and 50 caliber machine guns. Reports that the Argentinians were ill fed were wrong. The Argentinians spent considerable time building up logistics bases using C-130 transports and civilian airliners. Nightly C-130 logistic flights to Stanley airfield continued throughout the war. The Argentinian Air Force was the most professional of the services. Their bravery was witnessed time and time again as they made low level passes to bomb amphibious shipping. Their pilots were trained by the United States and Israel, and flew A-4 Skyhawks, Pucaras, and the Mirage III. Several advance force operations were conducted in preparation for the British amphibious landing. Most of these missions were enemy reconnaissance and beach surveys conducted by SAS and SBS teams. There was great concern for the Argentine ability to oppose the amphibious assault by air attack due to lack of British air superiority. A substantial number of planes were believed to be operating from the airfield on Pebble Island in West Falkland. An eight man SAS team inserted by canoe verified the presence of several aircraft and at least one-hundred men. On the night of 14 May, two Sea King helicopters carrying forty-five SAS troops conducted a raid on the airfield. With the support of naval gunfire, the SAS troops blew up eleven aircraft and made a hasty withdrawal without loosing a man. The landing site chosen for the amphibious assault was at Port San Carlos, located on the northwestern coast of East Falkland. The assault started on the morning of 21 May and initially was unopposed. At approximately 1000, Argentine aircraft attacked and began to target the destroyers and frigates, leaving the troop transports and supply ships untouched. By the end of 22 May, the landing force was ashore and the force beach head was secure. The first major offensive action of the war took place on 28 May with 2nd Para's move south from San Carlos to take the enemy garrison at Goose Green. Due to the sinking of the Atlantic Conveyor and the loss of three out of four CH-47 Chinook helicopters, 3 Commando Brigade had just enough helicopter assets for general off-load, which due to air attack was progressing at a slow rate. 2nd Para would have to Click here to view image walk the eighteen miles to Goose Green. Since artillery batteries of lO5mm guns had no prime movers, they would also have to rely on the short helicopter assets to displace guns and ammunition. Three lO5mm guns with 320 rounds each would be lifted to a fire base.[2:237] Naval gunfire support was to come from a frigate and the battalion was forced to carry two of eight organic 81mm mortars. The ammunition would be carried by every man. The battalion requested support from the eight Scorpion and Scimitar light tanks but was denied figuring that the tanks would be bogged down in the maze of rivers and streams. As it turned out, this was a wrong decision because later exploits showed that tanks could move about the island. Company size, battalion objectives were set up and all attacks were to be non-illuminated supported night attacks. The battalion crossed the line of departure at 0300. As day broke, four companies were conducting frontal assaults at Darwin. During the attack, heavy resistance was met and close air support [CAS] was urgently requested but the harriers located at sea, could not take off because of bad weather. The mortar platoon ran out of ammunition and at 0430 the fire support ship had to return to the safety of the air umbrella at San Carlos. At 0930 the momentum of the attack had been lost. The Battalion Commander felt it was time to lead from the front. While personally leading an attack on an enemy trench, he was hit by fire and fell mortally wounded. He was posthumously awarded the Victorian Cross, Britain's highest decoration. Six hours after the battle for Darwin was over, the battalion started its assault on the final objective of Goose Green. With little cover, the advancing companies started taking devastating artillery, mortar, and machine gun fire. While one company was advancing, a white flag was raised at an enemy position. When one platoon commander went forward with a squad, they were fired upon, killing the officer and two men. The platoon then overran the position, killing all the enemy. Artillery was the only fire support that was left but they were very short of ammunition with only 83 rounds per gun. Finally at 1500, two harriers arrived on station and took out the enemy artillery with cluster bombs.[2:24] As night fell, the battalion had surrounded Goose Green. It was decided to send two enemy prisoners back to Goose Green to ask for a surrender or be destroyed by air attack. The Argentinians agreed and surrendered the next morning. At a cost of 17 men killed and 35 wounded, 2 Para killed 250 Argentinians and took over 1200 prisoners.[2:251] With Goose Green secured, 3 Commando Brigade turned its attention to moving forces toward Stanley where the majority of the Argentine forces were. A series of mountains lie to the west of Stanley and were to be assigned as intermediate objectives for the main attack. Since there still were no helicopter assets to move the battalions east, the movement would have to be made on foot. 45 Commando and 3 Para started what was to be known as the big "yomp" across East Falkland. They marched forty miles in three days carrying all their personal equipment with packs weighing up to 110 pounds. This route took them up and down hills along rocky valleys and through stone runs that ran for miles. The Para's hiked for 24 hours straight stopping occasionally. They secured Douglas Settlement and Teal Inlet to the northwest of Stanley. While 3 Para and 45 Commando were moving on foot across East Falkland, a company of 42 Commando used the limited helicopter assets to fly to Mount Kent, a mountain that dominated the intermediate objective line of mountains. The next day, on 1 June, the remainder of 42 Commando was airlifted to Mount Challenger which also dominated the approaches to Stanley. On 29 May, the 5th Infantry Brigade consisting of the 2nd Battalion Scots Guards, 1st Battalion Welsh Guards and 1st Gurka Rifles arrived at San Carlos. This brought the number of ground forces up to 8000 troops. On 4 June, the commander of 5 Brigade used a private phone to call from Goose Green to the farm manager at Fitzroy, 36 miles away, to ascertain the enemy strength there. When it was found out that the Argentinians departed he hastily flew a company to secure a forward position. On 8 June, it was decided to bring 5 Brigade up to Bluff Cove. Unfortunately, the ships were caught in daylight during the ship to shore movement and were attacked by aircraft leaving the British with 51 killed and 46 injured.[2:281] With the landing of 5 Brigade, the British now had two brigades abreast in a line 10 miles west of Stanley. The plan to attack Stanley was to have 2 Commando Brigade seize the intermediate objectives of Mount Langdon, Two Sisters and Mount Harriet. On the night of 11 June, 3 Para attacked Mount Langdon, 45 Commando attacked Two Sisters and 42 Commando attacked Mount Harriet. The attacks were conducted at night along routes that had been discovered by extensive patrolling through the many scattered mine fields. The Argentinians were in prepared positions with heavy machine guns and night vision devices. Attacks were conducted with fixed bayonets and the British infantry routed the enemy from their positions. On the night of 13 June, 5 Brigade started their attack on Mount Tumbledown and Mount William with the Scots Guards. They too met an entrenched enemy in bunkers dug under the huge boulders that surrounded the area. The enemy was supported with mortars and heavy machine guns. At the same time the Scots were fighting bunker to bunker, 2 Para attacked Wireless Ridge. With the help of artillery and naval gunfire fire they attacked and defeated two enemy regiments. To the south, the Welsh Guards supported by Gurkas advanced on Mount William. They met little resistance and easily took their objectives. With the capture of the all of the high ground to the west, the British now looked down upon Stanley, their next objective. However, there was no need to plan the attack for white flags sprang up around Stanley. The next day, the British accepted the surrender of over 6000 Argentinians. The war was over! Old lessons were relearned in the Falkland Islands War. It showed that good training is the best weapon of the infantryman and that supporting arms can be the decisive factor in allowing infantry to accomplish its mission. It demonstrated that a well trained army with good morale can overcome numerically superior forces with poor leadership, morale, and training. It proved once again that airplanes, missiles, and ships cannot occupy and control land. It is significant that in this age of troop movement by helicopter, armored personnel carrier, and truck, the ability to move over land by foot became the tactical advantage of the war. Troops walked to war with a hundred pound pack and carrying a mortar round. This was an element that the Argentinians never expected and part of their reasoning for not attacking the force beachhead. Air superiority was never achieved by either side and infantry using conventional tactics won the war. Technology in the shape of computers, lasers and lock on missiles could not replace the courage of the infantryman. Victory was achieved by men going in on foot and prepared to fight. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bishop, Patrick, and Witherow, John. The Winter War. New York: Quartet Books, 1983 2. Hastings, Max, and Jenkins, Simon. The Battle for the Falklands. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1983, 114-285. 3. Laffin, John. Fight for the Falklands. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982 4. Mcmanners, Hugh. Falklands Commando. London: William Kimber & Co. Limited, 1984, 138-145. 5. Middlebrook, Martin. Operation Corporate. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 1985, 15-103. 6. Perrett, Bryan. Weapons of the Falklands Conflict. Poole: Blandford Press, 1982 7. Thompson, Julian. No Picnic. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1985 7. Vaux. Nick. Take That Hill. Washington D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey's International Defense Publishers, Inc., 1986
