Ownership Of The Night CSC 1989 SUBJECT AREA - Operations Major Bron Madrigan CG#9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY THESIS: With the introduction ov the AV-8B and the F/A-18D night attack variants, it is worthwile to take a look at where the Marine Corps has been with night specific missions to better predict where we are going. The real history of Marine night aviation begins with the Marine study of tactics and equipment used by the RAF before US entry into World War II. Much was learned from the British, and their approach to nignt fighting would influence the early development of Marine night specific units. The emphasis on the night fighting capability came after the assault on Guadalcanal. The Japanese harassed the weary Marines at night with aerial bombing missions; consequently, all efforts were made to train and equip units so as to rush them out to the Pacific theater. In addition to the many night fighter squadrons, some night bombing squadrons were also formed. These squadrons were equipped with PBJ's (B-25's), and were retro-fitted with radars. It is reported that a Marine PBJ flew the last combat mission of the war. The years between the wars saw a massive scale down in procurement and force size. The most notable exception was tne development of a fighter that was designed as such from the ground up. What makes this even more notable was that this airplane was jet powered. The F3D Skynight would not be ready for the bulk of the Korean war but would see action until the late 60's. The Korean war reinforced the idea that air warfare would have to become a 24 hour affair. Even so, most of the missions flown by Marine night squadrons were flown during the daytime. Close Air Support was the main mission of Marine air to include the night specific squadrons. Vietnam was unique in that the night missions became routine for most squadrons and missions. Technology was beginning to catch up with the need to be able to operate efficiently at night. SUMMARY: Technology has now reached the point where night operations can be accomplished with great efficiency. This specialization requires different aircraft capabilities than found in the regular squadrons. As was seen in World War II, the need for additional training in the night environment utilizing night specific instrumentation and sensors is necessry to preserve assets and to accomplish the mission. Major Bron Madrigan CG#9 OWNERSHIP OF THE NIGHT OUTLINE With the introduction of the AV-8B and the F/A-18D night attack variants, it is worthwhile to take a look at where the Marine Corps has been with night specific missions to better predict where we are going. 1. History of Night Aviation. A. WW II night attack and night fighters. (1) The need for night fighters in the pacific. (2) Evolution of training and employment. (3) Lessons learned. B. Korea (1) Prop aircraft to the Jet age. C. Vietnam (1) The absence of the night squadrons. 2. Present Technology. A. Lessons learned in past conflicts. B. Present and future need to use the night. Major Bron Madrigan CG#9 OWNERSHIP OF THE NIGHT In 1911 there were few military aviator, but of those that were stationed in the Washington area, many had Jobs in the Washington Navy yard or the Washington barracks and perfored their flying duties out in College Park, Maryland. It was not abnormal to go into work at 6 a.m., stay there until 9 a.m. or so, and and then go to College Park to fly. Once finished, they would go back to Washington for a few hours and then return out to the airfield for the afternoon training flights. On a brisk November day in 1911, Captain Charles Chandler took off from College Park destined for the Naval Academy. The Army-Navy game was that day and Captain Chandler did not want to miss it. After the game was over, he mounted his aeronautical steed only to find that the engine was malfunctioning. By the time that the mechanics had fixed the engine, it was after 7 p.m. and not wishing to remain overnight, he took off in hopes of making it back to Collage Park before dark. Unfortunately, the tail wind that had asssisted his morning flight had become a brick headwind for his evening return. It was soon dark and Captain Chandler was still miles from College Park. 0wnership of the Night By following the signal lights on the B and O railroad, he was able to navigate back to College Park where the ground crew was waiting to light the gas and oil that had been poured around the airfield. Using the fire as a reference, Captain Chandler safely landed his biplane and became the first military aviator to execute a night mission.1 With the introduction of the AV-8B and the F/A-18 night attack variants, it is worthwhile to take a look at where the Marine Corps has been with night specific missions to better predict where we are going. A look at this issue will mainly consist of Marine Corps night aviation history with a special emphasis on lessons that can be learned from the past as it relates to training and employment. 1Steve Tillman, " Army-Navy Football Game Gave Birth to Night Flying" Army-Navy Review. vol.78: Nov 23, 1957 Ownership of the Night History of Niaht Specific Aviation World War II. Not much is written about missions that were flown at night prior to the introduction of reliable all weather instruments in the 193O's. The pioneers of those days were the mail pilots that plied the airways between the east and west coast navigating from light beacon to light beacon. In the Marine Corps, aviation thinkers were developing new and innovative tactics and ideas. Much was learned from the first deployments to France in 1917, the air races that captivated the publics attention in the 1920's, and the Marine involvement in the Carribean, China, and Central Africa in the 2O's and 3O's.1 It wasn't until World War II that a squadron was formed with the primary purpose of providing night support. A very significant occurence happened before the war, in August of 1941, that would shape the future of Marine night squadrons. The Chief, Bureau of Aeronautics ordered the installation of the British Mk II ASV search radar into a Navy TBF. It was further directed that a Mk IV radar be installed in a SBD aircraft and later installed in a F4U. This was remarkable because it was the first installation of an air 1Willian Odell, Col. USAF, "The Development of Night Fighters in World War II" Naval History vol. 3, no. 1. Ownership of the Night intercept radar in small, single engine Naval aircraft.1 The early testing of the radar sets provided a sound foundation for future developeents of the Naval service night fighters. In April of 1942, the Navy established a unit at NAS Quonset Point under the code name of Project Argus. This codename was later changed to Project Affirm to eliminate confusion between two elements of the project. This project was the first night fighter developeent unit and its purpose was to develop and test night fighter equipment for the Navy and the Marine Corps.2 In August of 1942, the first full scale amphibious assault took place on Guadalcanal. The historical significance of Guadalcanal as it pertains to Marine night specific aviation, is that the Japanese flew many aissions at night to harass and interdict the beleagured Marines. The Cactus Air Force, as it was named, under the command of General Roy S. Geiger, flew missions against these invaders but the capabilities of the day fighters were limited against the night agressors. These night attacks provided new impetus to the fledgling night fighter program. In November, 1942, the first Naval service squadron that had night capability as its primary mission was commissioned at MCAS 1NAVAIR 00-SOP-1, United States Naval Aviation 1910-1980, COMNAVAIRSYSCOM and DCNO (Air Warfare), 1981. 2Ibid. pg. 114 Ownership of the Night Cherry Point, North Carolina. VMF(N)-531 was its designation and Lieutenant Colonel Frank H. Schwable was its first Commanding Officer. Lt Col Schwable was one of the Marine aviators that was assigned to learn about night fighting in Britain. He brought back to the US the plans and working models of the British Mark IV radar1. Others were along that initial cadre and learned much about British night fighting capabilities and about Ground Controlled Intercepts (GCI). The next decision was what kind of aircraft was to be the first night fighter. The first choice of the Marine Corps was the USAAF's P-61 Black Widow that was designed and built from the ground up as a night fighter. Unfortunately, there was not a great enough production capability to support two service runs. Additionally, there was some parochialism involved because it was not a carrier capable aircraft. The next choice was the P-70 which was the aircraft the USAAF was using on Guadalcanal to stop the night harasseent flights. It was determined that the P-70 was not suitable for the mission as the USAAF pilots were finding out. They ended up taking the radar out of the aircraft and attacking their prey by use of ground searchlights. The A-20 was also considered but was also rejected. The F4U Corsair was considered for the role but it was determined that it wasn't 1Peter P. Mersky U.S. Marine Corps Aviation: 1912 to the Present, Annapolis, Md. Nautical & Aviation Publishing Company of America. 1983 Ownership of the Night ready yet. The SB2C Helldiver was rejected for much the same reasons. In the early stages of this concept there was a strong lobby for a night fighter much like the British had. They proposed a two engined, multi-crew aircraft; consequently, the British Beaufighter and Mosquito were nominated for the role but were rejected because the policy makers wanted the fighter to be of American manufacture. The PV-1 was finally selected to become the first Naval night fighter. The Vega Ventura was a stable gun platform and had plenty of room for the radar and its operator. It also had room for a radio operator and a turret gunner. A turret was on the top and sported two .50 cal machine guns with four .50 cal machine guns installed in the nose. The Ventura's shortcomings were that it had an electrical system that was at best tempermental and it could not fly high enough to accomplish the mission effectively. The poor oxygen system was a partial limiting factor to the altitude cap and the aircraft had to struggle to get above 15,000 even with its top turret and guns removed. The PV-1 would do in a pinch and would provide valuable lessons learned for the squadrons that would follow but it was certainly not an adequate answer. It is interesting to note that the Marine Corps night fighter program was almost stillborn at its inception. In January of 1942, Capt. Ralph Davison of the Navy's Aeronautical Ownership of the Night Board wrote. " The Job of Marines is to seize a beachhead and hold it until replaced by the Army. To do this, night fighters will be an absolute necessity."1 With this sort of endorsement, Marine night fighter proponents were dumbfounded when they found out that the Commandant's office approved eight squadrons to be activated in 1945 and no sooner. It was only with some very dedicated advocacy that VMF(N)-531 was eventually commissioned. On April 1, 1943, the second night fighter squadron was commissioned as was the first night fighter group. These were VMF(N)-532 and Marine Night Fighter Group-53. The first Navy night fighter squadron, VF(N)-75, was formed 10 days later. Both squadrons were outfitted with the F4U Corsair, which was being equipped with the APS-6 radar. This change to a single seat, single engine fighter was a major divergence in previous thinking. Perhaps the change came about because it was recognized that the defense of the carrier battle group would have to become a 24 hour affair and any Naval service night fighter would have to be carrier capable. In the meantime, VMF(N)-531 was deployed to the Pacific theater with their PV-1's and their GCI crews. So it became history that a Marine squadron became the first Naval service 1Bruce Porter Col. USMC(Ret) with Eric Hammel Ace!: A Marine Night-Fighter Pilot in World War II. (Pacifica, Ca.: Pacifica Press)1985 Ownership of the Night night specific squadron to see action in the Pacific.1 VF(N)-75 followed closely behind and acheived the first kill in October of 1943. This was the first American kill at night utilizing an airborne radar and a Ground Controlled Intercept team. The Marines shared a portion of that claim since it was a VMF(N)-531 GCI team that performed the intercept. It wasn't until December of that year that VMF(N)-531 scored a night kill. A number of squadrons were outfitted with the special Corsair with the APS-6 radar and operated in the Pacific theater. These aircraft differed not only in the fact that they had a radar, but they had exhaust flame dampners, VHF radio, 5 instead of 6 machine guns, and a fairly new system called an IFF (Identification, Friend/Foe). The Corsair wasn't the only aircraft to see action as a night fighter. The F6F Hellcat was developed into a night fighter initially with the APS-6 radar and then with the upgraded APS-13. As time went on, operation of the radars became more user friendly.2 In addition to the new radars, other innovations were included in the Hellcat conversions. Special lighting and low detectible paint schemes were now being added to the night fighter. Near the end of the war, the F7F Tigercat was designated as 1Ibid pg. 183 2Porter, Ace! pg 270-275 Ownership of the Night the optimum replacement for all of the night fighters but would not see action in World War II. It represented the state of the art in night fighting capability when it was introduced. Night air to air combat was not the only arena for night specific aircraft and squadrons. Many times the VMB squadrons were overlooked because their mission just simply wasn't the sexiest story to tell. In 1943, the North American production line had produced more B-25s than the USAAF could absorb. The Marine Corps happily absorbed eight squadrons worth of these B-25s and five squadrons saw action in the Pacific theater. The (N) designation was not added to the squadron designation, but the mission was mainly the night bombing of enemy logistics installations and shipping. This B-25 was designated the PBJ-1, and the night versions were models D/H/J. These squadrons were deployed in 1943 and saw such action in the Solomons, Marianas, Iwo Jima, and in Japan itself. It is recorded that a Marine PBJ flew the last combat mission of the war on a shipping raid to Yokusuka.* * It is interesting to note that one of the most notable VMB squadrons was commanded by Mad Jack Cram who in 1942, on Guadalcanal, jury rigged two torpedoes to the underside of General Geiger's personal PBY. He then sank a Japanese troop ship. General Geiger threatened to have Mad Jack courtmartialed if he got as such as a scratch on his PBY. Mad Jack Cram was eventually awarded the Navy Cross for his actions at Guadalcanal. Ownership of the Night While discussing the night flyers of WW II, it is necessary to address the formation of the training structure and bases that were used to train the night fighters. As was previously mentioned, the US Navy began the experimeent with Project Affirm. Out of that project came the first training and evaluation unit based at the Naval facility at Quonset Point. Its head was Commander W.E.G. Taylor who was a member of the famed Eagle Squadron in the U.K. during the Battle of Britain. Project Argus/Affirm was primarily concerned with development and experimentation. In August of 1943 the project name was changed to the Night Fighter Training Unit and moved to Charleston, Rhode Island. At the same time, the Marine Corps had already begun their training at MCAS Cherry Point, North Carolina; however, it is uncertain what, if any, cross training was accomplished. The Navy expanded the unit to becose the Night Attack and Combat Training Unit (Atlantic/Pacific). The Marine Corps further expanded its training program to include the training bases at Vero Beach, and Opa Locka, Florida; and at El Centro, Goleta, and North Island, California. A pilot was assigned to Cherry Point for initial night fighter indoctrination and then assigned to a work-up squadron. Normally that squadron would be brought up to speed and then assigned combat duty in the Pacific theater. In October of 1944, it was decided that two Marine Air Ownership of the Night Groups would be formed and deployed aboard two escort carriers since the Marine Corps had such a surplus of aviators and aircraft. These became MCVGs (Marine Carrier Air Wings) 48 and 51. The composition included a detachment of nine night fighters that were assigned to each MCVG. In order to properly prepare for night operations aboard a carrier, each detachment was assigned to the Night Attack and Combat Training Unit(Pacific). By this time, all Night Fighter squadrons of both services went through night carrier qualifications with NATCU(Pac). Many of the problems that were initially encountered can be attributed to the relative inexperience of its pilots. For example, almost 80% of the first pilots in VMF(N)-544 were right out of the Training Command. As a result many were killed because of the limited training in instrument flying.1 A great amount of instrument training became the main focus of the program at Cherry Point and in subsequent training. Many other problems can be attributed to the lack of focus in regards to selecting the service-standard night fighter. This caused many logistical and training problems for support crews. It wasn't until 1944 that the Bureau of Aeronautics decided upon the F6F Hellcat as the service-standard night fighter. 1Bruce Porter, Ace! pg 182-19O Ownership of the Night Korea. The years between the war naturally saw a great draw down in equipment and personnel. There were some programs that received emphasis, but many did not. The Marine Corps received very little money for aviation during those years while the new Air Force seemed to be getting all that it wanted; consequently, the Marine Corps went into the Korean war with only a few jet squadrons. When the call for mobilization went out, the Marine Corps quickly responded with Marine Air Group 33. The group consisted of VMF-214 and 323, VMF(N)-513, Tactical Air Control Sqd. 2, Marine Ground Control Sqd. 1, and VMO-6. The "Flying Nightmares" of VMF(N)-513 flew F7F Tigercats which were specially modified with an air to air radar. The "Blacksheep" of 214 and the "Death Rattlers" of 323 were outfitted with the penultimate prop fighter, the Corsair. These units flew their missions from the USS Sicily and the USS Badoeng Strait respectively. VMF(N)-513 flew their missions at the beginning of the war from Itazuke, Japan. VMF(N)-542 later joined 513 once Kimpo airfield was uncovered after the Inchon landings.1 The Night squadrons provided night air defense and provided much needed air support 1LtCol. C.A. Phillips and Maj. H.D. Kuokka, "First MAW in Korea", Marine Corps Gazette, vol. 41 no. 5 May 1957. p.42-47 Ownershipo of the Night during the day and at night. Most of the air defense during the day was done by the US Air Force. During this time period, the first jet night fighter was being produced. What made this aircraft unique was that it was being designed as a night fighter fromi the ground up, jet or otherwise. This aircraft was the F3D Skyknight. Many would come to know it as the DRUT or "Willie the Whale." The terms were not altogether complimentary but the "Whale" would go on to see honorable service in Vietnam up until 1969 as an electronics warfare platform. Night close air support was receiving much attention during Korea as well. Target acquisition remained the major problem. New ways of trying to accomplish night acquisition were experimented with. One such experiment using searchlights to illuminate targets was conducted off of the coast of Korea to see if it was a viable solution for target acquisition. Airborne searchlights also were tried with only limited success. It seems that the use of air delivered or artillery delivered flares were attempted but they proved too dim to be useful. The use of radar direction was also attempted but results were inconclusive. The most significant events of the conflict that would influence the future of the Marine Corps were the tactical use of Ownership of the Night helicopters, and the need to be able to fight at night. Korea changed the importance of night warfare. The Chinese owned the night and we were terrified by it. Seneral Bruce Livesey commented at a recent speaking engagement to the Command and Staff College at Quantico about this very subject. Recounting his experiences in Korea as a ground commander, he swore that he would do all that he could do in the future to ensure that Americans would be able to use the night as effectively as the enemy did. Vietnam. The years after Korea saw the fading away of the Night squadrons. The missions did not necesearily go away but the need to accomplish the mission at night became integral to the fighter and attack missions. The exception was the F3D previously mentioned which primarily flew at night since that is when many of the attack packages to North Vietnam were flown. Night became a cover for an aircraft that was neither fast nor maneuverable. Many of the other missions that were flown at night were because of the ability of the North Vietnasese and the Viet Cong to resupply at night. Again, the enemy was using the cover of night to its advantage. US technology came a long way to aid the aviators in Cwnership of the Night accomplishing their mission. Night vision devices and infrared technology made great advances during the South East Asian conflict. It wasn't until later in the war that the Navy would introduce an aircraft that was engineered primarily for night missions. In the late 60's the Navy developed a derivitive of their A-6 aircraft based upon the TRIM (trails, roads, interdiction, multi-sensor) program. The A-6C was developed with new sensors that would enable it to search, acquire, and destroy targets in North Vietnam, and along the enemy's major north-south resupply routes.1 The night vision goggles were first introduced during Vietnam but were not used in the front line units. Their use were mainly for specialized units. Post Vietnam to Present The advance of technology has made a big impact on the ability to conduct night operations. For the most part, all of these technological gains have resulted in the enhanced capability to conduct night operations across the board. The use of Forward Looking Infrared Receivers (FLIR) and night vision 1"Night Warfare A-6's" Armed Forces Journal, vol.1O6 no. 23, S Feb. 1969 p14-15 0wnership of the Night goggles have closed the gap in Marine capability to operate as freely at night as we do during daytime. The gap is still open but will close with the re-introduction of night specific aircraft such as the F~A-1SD and the AV-S (Night Attack). These aircraft will not necesearily be restricted to night operations, but are optimized for night missions. The amount of specific hardware and software that is required to optimize an aircraft for enhanced capability at night, would make it prohibitive to include in all aircraft of a common type. This realization brings the issue full circle to what it was in the early days of WW II. The current night minimums for most Marine pilots are not nearly enough to make the proficient in night attack missions. As was proven in the night fighter squadrons during the 40's, the need for added training at night and on instruments is a must to preserve assets. In addition to the basics which are taught at all levels of training, the added time needed to train utilizing FLIR, night vision devices, and other such tools is a necessity. The need to be able to conduct air operations at night has become a priority for a numbers or reasons. In many cases it is a matter of survival. The capabilities of the enemy's threat Ownership of the Night systems drive our air operations into the night environment. This is very true when speaking of helicopter operations. Night air defense must always be a 24 hour proposal and goes without saying. Night close air support and interdiction has been done for years and continues to be of foremost importance. It is no longer enough to be able to just conduct some operations at night, it is now necessary to conduct these missions at night as effectively and efficiently as is done during the day. One can say that the same is true for missions flown during times of bad weather; however, the current capability is only available with the A-6E with its RABFAC equipment. This capability is still limited. The historical parallels are a true judge of where we need to focus to maximize training efforts. Time is a dimension that is a concern of the ground commander, and he needs to have the means of which to influence dimension. Aircraft that can effectively accomplish the mission at night will provide the commander the means to own the night. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Mersky, Peter P. U.S. Marine Corps Aviation: 1912 to Present. Annapolis: Nautical & Aviation Publishing Co. of America, 1983 2. NAVAIRSYSCOM. Naval Aviation 1910-1980. NAVAIR 00-80P-1, 1981 3. Odell, William Col. USAF(Ret). "The Development of Night Fighters in World War II." Naval History vol 3, no 1, Naval Institute Press, 1989. 4. Porter, Bruce R., Hammel, Eric. Ace! A Marine Night-Fighter Pilot in World War II. Pacifica Ca.: Pacifica Press, 1985 5. Sherrod, Robert. History of Marine Corps Aviation in World War II. 2nd Ed. San Raphael, Ca.: Presidio Press, 1980. 6. Tillman, Steve "Army-Navy Football Game Gave Birth to Night Flying." Army Navy Review. vol 78, Nov 23 1957.
