Military

4-1. The command function motivates and directs the force toward accomplishing the mission. It is a continual process centered on the commander. The commander is selected for his ability as a military leader, as a tactical expert, and for his ability to organize and direct the efforts of his unit. The commander is personally responsible to accomplish his unit's mission. To do this, the commander is vested with command authority and assisted by a staff and a command facility. Depending on the mission, he has command authority ranging from full authority to temporary or highly constrained authority.

4-2. The C² combat function underpins all other combat functions. Battle command is the motivating force behind all military action. Effective control ensures the implementation of commands and provides accurate situation awareness to the commander. The commander must be both a good leader and an effective decision-maker. He is reliant on a functional C² system to identify decision points, to provide sound options, and to ensure the implementation of decisions.

4-3. C² of ADA brigade operations is grouped into force operations, engagement operations, and sustainment operations. Force operations set the conditions for success by effecting the tactical planning and execution required to make battle-ready fire units available at the right place and time. Engagement operations involve the conduct of the air battle and the accomplishment of the AMD mission by defeating enemy aircraft and missile attacks. AMD operations are sustained over time through effective logistics and force projection operations. Chapter 8 covers ADA brigade sustainment operations.

4-4. The CP is the facility from where the commander and his staff command and control operations. ADA CPs are established down to HIMAD battery and SHORAD platoon levels. For survivability, alternate CPs are normally established at brigade and battalion level. All CPs have secure communications to higher headquarters. CPs maintain current situation awareness regarding the national alert status, the status of enemy and friendly forces, their own unit status and applicable orders in effect. CPs must be able to execute current operations and to pass orders to subordinate ADA units. CPs have dedicated elements to implement emergency survivability measures in case of chemical or ground attack. CPs can sustain operations indefinitely through crew rotation.

4-5. The brigade CP is organized with an Air and Missile Defense Planning and Control System (AMDPCS) and a FDC. The AMDPCS performs FO and EO functions. The CP includes an operations/Intel cell, an S1/S4/log cell, and a plans cell. The S1/S4 and S2/S3 cells may or may not be collocated. FDC manages AMD engagement operations and is normally collocated with the AMDPCS. Engagement operations provide important feedback to the AMDPCS affecting current operations and future plans. The corps ADA brigade CP often positions near the corps main CP but must be mobile enough to move and locate throughout the corps area of operations. The EAC brigade CP locates in a position to best influence the theater AMD mission.

4-6. The S2/S3 Current Ops Cell executes current force operations and maintains an accurate awareness of the current situation for the brigade commander. To do this, it maintains constant communications with brigade LNOs, the CADE, division and EAC CPs, and subordinate battalion CPs. All brigade orders are issued from this cell, and copies of all relevant orders and directives from higher, adjacent, and subordinate CPs are maintained here. The focus of S2/S3 activities is in answering the commander's critical information requirements (CCIR) and his priority intelligence requirements (PIR).

4-7. This element performs future planning and prepares risk assessments, incorporating risk control measures in all plans. The ADA brigade planning horizon may vary from 24 - 96 hours in the future, depending on the tempo of operations. The Plans cell synchronizes AMD operations in time with other combat functions and adjacent forces. ADA brigade planning focuses mainly on allocating forces to missions and on developing an AMD scheme of maneuver to maintain area AMD coverage of the force as it maneuvers. In the corps ADA brigade, the plans cell coordinates closely with the CADE, the corps plans element, divisional ADA planners, brigade LNOs, and subordinate battalion staffs.

4-8. The brigade FDC provides fire direction to subordinate battalions' fire direction sections (FDS). The FDC maintains positive control links with both higher and lower air defense C² centers. The FDC provides expertise and staff input concerning airspace management, HIMAD capabilities, C³ linkages, and engagement operations tactics. The FDC ensures that ACOs are disseminated promptly to subordinate battalions.

4-9. The S1/S4 Cell executes CSS within the Brigade, including supply, maintenance, transportation, and field services support. It focuses primarily on sustaining weapon systems. It interfaces with the corps support command (COSCOM) and the theater army area command (TAACOM) headquarters and area support groups, the corps staff, and subordinate unit logistics elements. The S1/S4 cell coordinates logistics movements across EAC, corps, and divisional transportation routes. In coordinating ammunition resupply, the S1/S4 Cell must coordinate with supply and transportation elements and with division ammunition officers for ammunition shipments into division sectors.

4-10. Figure 4-1 shows an example of the brigade CP layout. Commanders will determine the best design for their mission and operation.

4-11. ADA battalion CPs are organized to perform liaison and other functions similar to the Brigade CP. HIMAD battalion CPs have an AMDPCS and a FDC, while SHORAD battalion CPs have an AMDPCS and an air battle management element (ABME). Battalion operations focus on assigning missions, developing detailed SHORAD/HIMAD defense designs, conducting AMD engagement operations, and on sustaining crews and units.

4-12. A well-organized CP is an essential prerequisite for C², but the real engine of the C² process is the battle staff. The battle staff consists of the staff principals and assistants who are directly responsible to the commander. Battle staff members are functional area experts, trained to rapidly work as a team through the staff estimate and staff planning process. The battle staff receives the commander's guidance and quickly provides a recommended plan of action.

4-13. In integrating AMD operations into the theater air defense system and synchronizing with corps operations, the ADA brigade must interface with many other CPs. It is important that the battle staff understand how functions impacting on AMD operations are performed in these headquarters.

4-14. The corps ADA brigade receives its orders from the corps headquarters. Additionally, in large unit operations, a JTF may hold a corps in reserve and task it with responsibility for tactical rear operations. In this case, the corps may have OPCON of EAC units conducting tactical operations in the theater rear. These include EAC ADA brigades. Division CPs are organized similarly to the corps CP, but on a smaller scale. The corps conducts operations from three CPs.

4-15. The TAC CP serves as a mobile alternate CP and monitors the close fight in coordination with division CPs. It normally locates in the division rear area and is headed by the corps chief of staff with a small battle staff. The Rear CP conducts sustainment and rear battle operations in coordination with the COSCOM and the rear area operations center (RAOCs). The Rear CP is headed by the corps deputy commanding general (DCG) and manned by a large staff element to perform essential combat, CS, and CSS functions.

4-16. The Main CP conducts future planning and the synchronization of close, deep, and rear operations. The corps commander and general staff principals operate from this CP. The corps DOCC also operates from the Main CP. TMD attack operations, AMD nominations for OCA targeting, and other activities are coordinated through the DOCC.

4-17. The corps air defense element (CADE) coordinates corps air and missile defense operations much like the corps fire support element (FSE) coordinates fire support operations for the corps. The CADE is represented at the corps command posts. The CADE works for the corps ADA brigade commander, who also serves as the corps AMDCOORD.

4-18. The JFACC is often also the ACA, AADC, and AFFOR. The JFACC CP includes a general staff element that conducts future planning and S1/S4 coordination and an air operations center (AOC) which executes the air campaign plan. The principal execution document for air operations is the daily air tasking order (ATO), which is developed over a three-day period. It addresses all aspects of the air operation, including air defense fighter operations. It is published with an attached ACO which outlines the supporting airspace control plan for the day. The AOC's mission is to develop, refine, and execute the ATO. Component mission and weapon experts assist the AOC. The AAMDC commander, as the DAADC, serves the AOC as the Army component mission expert for active defense and TMD operations.

4-19. JFLCC interests in the ACC headquarters are represented by a large liaison section termed the battlefield coordination detachment (BCD). These interests normally include the coordination of deep fires, airspace control means, air defense operations, and normal air-ground liaison functions. The BCD is staffed with dedicated intelligence, operations, aviation, airspace management, AMD, and fire support experts. Depending on the situation, it may be augmented with corps LNOs, including ADA officers. If the corps is also functioning as a JTF, then the corps forms the BCD. Corps AMD coordination with the ACC is accomplished through the BCD. The BCD collocates with the AOC. The ADA brigade coordinates with the JFACC through its higher headquarters and the BCD. BCD air and missile defense coordination in turn will include ACC air defense planners and Army AMD component experts augmenting the AOC. FM 3-100.13 describes BCD doctrine. Figure 4-2 shows the organization of the AOC and how the BCD is integrated.

4-20. A numbered army may command up to five corps in large unit operations. The Eighth US Army in Korea is an example. A field army commander may be the Army forces commander within a joint force or task force. Third US Army is the ARFOR for USCENTCOM. Within a joint force, it could also be a functional land component headquarters commanding all land forces. In smaller operations, the corps could be the ARFOR or LCC. In some cases, there is precedence for an Army division to be a JTF ARFOR.

4-21. If the AAMDC is not present, the EAC ADA brigade coordinates with an ARFOR/LCC/Army level headquarters in several areas. If not task organized by the JFC as OPCON to the JFACC, the EAC ADA brigade will receive missions from this headquarters. If OPCON to the JFACC, the brigade must still coordinate AMD defenses with an Army level headquarters, as well as logistics, communications, and rear area security matters. In the initial entry stage of force projection operations, the corps ADA brigade may be OPCON to the gaining ARFOR headquarters. The corps may be the ARFOR. In these instances, the corps ADA brigade may also coordinate directly with an Army headquarters.

4-22. FM 3-50 outlines Army level operations and organizations. The Army conducts deep fires, air defense, airspace management, and other functions of relevance to AMD, but it does so on an operational level. Issues to be coordinated at army level include submission of airspace, OCA interdiction, air defense requirements, TMD missions, and joint force air apportionment recommendations. In the absence of a subordinate corps or similar headquarters, the field army can perform limited tactical functions in the theater rear. The EAC ADA brigade coordinates both with the army headquarters and with its BCE element in the AOC. The corps ADA brigade coordinates army level AMD issues through the corps as necessary.

4-23. In World War II, large unit operations in the European theater included dozens of corps, each commanding from two to five divisions. Span of control requirements necessitated not only the formation of field armies to command corps, but army groups to command field armies and up to 25 corps. Today, the mobility and combat power of an army corps and supporting air forces are vastly greater than their antecedents of fifty years ago. This has made the prospect of requiring an army group headquarters very unlikely. Nevertheless, the theater requirements for operational level support to multiple corps has remained, leading to the constitution of Army Service Component Commander (ASCC). This position was formerly termed theater army commander. The ASCC is responsible for carrying out US Title 10 support within a theater of operations.

4-24. ASCC roles can range from force provider in a transition to war, to operational headquarters in a force projection operation, to national support headquarters in a period of conflict. US Army Europe headquarters is an example of an existing ASCC. In peace, the ASCC mission is to provide trained and ready forces in support of combatant commanders. In a force projection scenario, the ASCC focus is upon receiving, assembling, and moving the ARFOR quickly to its employment area of operations. In addition to logistics support, this mission may include force protection. The resulting ASCC task organization might include SOF and combat units such as AMD. The ASCC might also command a numbered army in this situation, if specified by the combatant CINC. In combat, the ASCC provides the full range of operational level CSS and rear area tactical CSS to the ARFOR, allowing the CINC to strategically concentrate land forces. In all cases, the ASCC is an essential link between the combatant commander, the host nation, and the ARFOR. FM 3-50 describes ASCC organization and functions in detail. AMD coordination with an ASCC will depend on the situation, but could include logistics, intelligence, operational missions, and deployment/redeployment issues.

4-25. The ADA brigade coordinates with some or all of the following CPs to obtain logistics support. The ADA brigade coordinates with the COSCOM/TAACOM/DISCOM CP for support of broad logistics support priorities and arrangements. It coordinates with the COSCOM Materiel Management Center for supply and maintenance priorities. It coordinates with corps and EAC Area Support Groups (ASG) for specific CSS support. It coordinates with corps and divisional movement control centers for movement and transportation support. Chapter 8 describes the CPs and the support they provide.

4-26. The AADC will establish one or more subordinate C² facilities to execute air and air defense operations. In the early stages of a lodgment, an AWACS may perform this function. In a mature theater, CRCs will be established, employing a network of highly mobile CRPs and forward air control points (FACPs) to accomplish their functions. Using organic radars, CRPs and FACPs feed an air picture to the CRCs. CRCs fuse the ground radar picture with data from aerial platforms (AWACS, E2C Hawkeye) and with intelligence information to produce a recognized air picture for their sector of operations. The ADA brigade FDC may coordinate directly with a CRC to effect this link.

4-27. Rear area security is afforded through a combination of base cluster defenses, tactical combat forces, fire support, and command and control facilities. The RAOC coordinates rear battle operations within its AO. The RAOC has tasking authority over designated reaction forces and fire support. The RAOC establishes base clusters encompassing tenant units. It may also task brigade level headquarters in the corps or theater rear to organize ground defense plans within a base cluster. The ADA brigade coordinates with the RAOC for rear area security issues.

4-28. The joint nature of AMD operations often produces complex command relationships. It is essential that air defenders understand both service and joint concepts of command and control. Figure 4-3 summarizes the different joint command authorities.

4-29. The JFC may establish a support relationship by tasking one force to assist another force without actually subordinating the first force to the other. Joint doctrine establishes the support relationships of general support, mutual support, direct support, and close support.

• General support is the action that is given to the supported force as a whole rather than to a particular subdivision thereof.
• Mutual support is the action that units render each other because of their assigned tasks, their position relative to each other, and their inherent capabilities.
• Direct support is a mission requiring a force to support another specific force and authorizing it to answer directly the supported force's request for assistance.
• Close support is the action of the supporting force against targets or objectives that are sufficiently near the supported force as to require detailed integration or coordination of the supporting action with fire, movement, or other actions of the supported force.

4-30. Coordinating authority is exercised at any command echelon. It is delegated to a commander or individual for coordinating specific functions and activities involving forces of two or more services, functional components, or two or more forces of the same service. The coordinating authority may require consultation between the agencies involved, but he does not have the authority to compel agreement. The corps ADA brigade commander, as the corps AMDCOORD has coordinating authority to synchronize all AMD operations within the corps AO. The AADC is the coordinating authority at the joint force level.

4-31. Command relationships establish the degree of control and responsibility a commander has for forces operating under his control. Support relationships establish specific relationships and responsibilities between the supporting and supported units. The following paragraphs describe the types of command and support relationships that ADA units may find themselves operating under.

4-32. ADA units operate in some permanent command relationship to their higher headquarters. When units are an integral part of a higher echelon unit, as established by a table of organization and equipment (TOE), they are organic. A Patriot battery, for example, is organic to a Patriot battalion. If units are made a permanent part of a higher echelon unit by Department of the Army orders, they are assigned. A missile DS ordnance company, for example, may be assigned to an ADA brigade. Commanders exercise command over assigned and organic forces as normally organized and are responsible for their administrative and logistic support.

4-33. Commanders have the authority to organize their assigned and organic forces, as the situation requires. When forces are task organized, they may be OPCON to another unit or may be attached to it. Command relationships established by task organization are limited to the duration and purpose of the operation for which the task organization was directed. Commanders are not responsible to logistically support forces under OPCON, unless specified in the task organization order. Commanders have logistic responsibility for attached forces, unless specified otherwise in the task organization order.

4-34. Like joint support relationships, ADA support relationships provide AMD support to an element of the force without subordinating the AMD unit to that element under a command relationship. Army AMD doctrine outlines four support relationships: general support (GS), GS reinforcing (GSR), reinforcing (R), and direct support (DS). Divisional ADA units are usually task organized and employed as DS to a maneuver brigade or GS to the division. EAC ADA units may have a joint support role with the JFACC, or may be GS to an Army force. Synchronized corps and divisional AMD operations may involve all of these support relationships. The following paragraphs describe AMD support relationships and some considerations in applying them.

4-35. A GS AMD unit provides air defense to the force as a whole and is not committed to any specific element of the force. ADA units usually operate under GS unless otherwise tasked. The support relationship is identified in the task organization order. This relationship is commonly used when the AMD unit protects corps elements in the division and corps rear areas. GS ADA units can rapidly respond to changes in either the scheme of maneuver or the air threat.

4-36. A GSR AMD unit primarily supports the force as a whole and secondarily augments the coverage of another AMD unit. GSR units are not committed to any specific element of the force. For example, this mission could be used where the corps commander desires to reinforce divisional AMD fires but retain close control over the additional unit. At corps level, corps priorities take precedence over division priorities for a GSR unit.

4-37. A reinforcing AMD unit augments the coverage of another AMD unit. It also strengthens the air defense of the force as a whole. This mission differs from GSR in that the reinforced commander approves a positioning of a reinforcing AMD unit. Divisional priorities would take precedence over corps priorities for a corps AMD unit reinforcing a divisional unit.

4-38. A DS AMD unit provides dedicated air and missile defense for a specific element of the force. A DS AMD unit provides close and continuing support and coordinates its movement and positioning with the element it supports. A prerequisite for a DS relationship is that the supported force has no AMD capability of its own.

4-39. In recommending AMD missions for the brigade and for divisional AMD to the corps commander, the corps AMDCOORD may also recommend the establishment of support or command relationships between ADA units. In task organizing his own forces, the ADA brigade commander may establish support or command relationships between subordinate units. An Avenger platoon, for example, could have a reinforcing support relationship or an OPCON or attached command relationship with a HIMAD battalion. The commander must first decide whether AMD integration requires formal coordination. The commander must next decide whether to establish a command or a support relationship based on this formal coordination.

4-40. Figure 4-4 illustrates the specific authorities and responsibilities of AMD support relationships. Further information on support relationship can be found in FM 6-99, Staff Organization and Operations.

4-41. The battle command system must support the ability of the commander to adjust plans for future operations while focusing on the current fight. The battle command system for air and missile defense is grouped into two categories: EO and FO. EO and FO functions are closely related. There is a real-time interaction that takes place between many of the EO and FO functions during battle. This interaction results in continued force optimization as the battle progresses. The related tools for implementing command decisions include communications and computers.

4-42. Battle command is the art of battle decision making, leading, and motivating soldiers as well as their organizations into action to accomplish missions at least cost to soldiers. Battle command includes visualizing the current and desired future states of friendly and enemy forces and then deciding how to get from one to the other at least cost. The commander assigns missions, prioritizes and allocates resources, selects the critical time and place to act, and knows how and when to make adjustments during the fight.

4-43. Commanders will assess; take risks; and see, hear ,and understand the needs of subordinates and seniors. Commanders go where they can best influence the battle, where their moral and physical presence can be felt, and where their will to achieve victory can best be expressed, understood, and acted upon.

4-44. Battle command has two vital components: decision making and leadership. Both components demand skill, wisdom, experience, and courage. The two elements of battle command are tightly interwoven. They integrate leading, guiding, and motivating with the knowledge to establish and define the limits of control throughout the course of a mission.

4-45. Decision-making is knowing if to decide, then when and what to decide. Decision brings with it the cost of committing resources, foreclosing options, incurring risks, and revealing intentions to the enemy. Uncertainty and chance will always complicate decision-making.

4-46. Commanders cannot and should not attempt to know everything. However, commanders must know what is important. The battle command system must provide a solid base of information from which commanders can pick and choose what they need.

4-47. Commanders bear personal responsibility for defining the critical friendly or enemy information they need. Battle command demands that leaders position themselves where they can best command without limiting the ability to respond to changing situations. Commanders must go where they can best assess the operation and risks and make the necessary adjustments.

4-48. Battle command demands that the commander retain objectivity when making decisions and not be swayed by the passions of the moment. Commanders cannot attempt to address personally every action. Knowing what requires their attention and what staff and subordinate commanders and leaders can handle is key to time management and a decentralized command environment.

4-49. Leadership is taking responsibility for actions of the command and the decisions that caused those actions. Commanders will be compelled to act without all the relevant information and must be prepared to deal with the consequences thereof. After forces have been put into motion, the commander must provide the strength and will to follow through with his decisions. He must have the wisdom to recognize when changes have to be made.

4-50. The commander's strength of character and ability to motivate are among the most vital components of successful command. The commander serves as a role model. Commanders promote the proper ethical perspectives, sustain a positive and progressive command climate, and foster a sense of organizational unity and cohesion. Commanders are technically and tactically proficient. They possess the moral toughness that provides soldiers the will to fight.

4-51. Command and the decision making and problem solving that come with it are not done in isolation. The commander's staff and subordinates assist in developing, modifying, and improving the initial versions of plausible courses of action, and in the development of future courses of action.

4-52. Battle commanders must be flexible enough to respond to changing situations and anticipate the demands of future operations and the solutions to them. They must train themselves, their staffs, soldiers, and units so that they are prepared for whatever missions they may be assigned. Commanders must be able to visualize the future, formulate concepts, allocate means, and direct the necessary missions required to achieve victory.

4-53. Commanders make assessments of the current situation and estimates of future operations to determine their own intent and formulate the concept of operation. Commanders determine the amount of delegation to others by prioritizing actions and the acceptable degree of risk. This delegation synchronizes actions across the area of operation. Command without freedom of action to subordinates denies their initiative and lessens the ability of the battle commander to employ all resources to their fullest potential.

4-54. Tempo requires both mental and physical agility by leaders and organizations. Commanders must possess the mental agility and discipline to make timely decisions to modify the tempo to their advantage, deny the enemy the initiative, and decisively defeat him at the selected place and time.

4-55. Control is inherent in battle command. Control is more scientific than command. Control monitors the status of organizational activities, identifies deviations from the commander's intent, and regulates the forces and means toward an intended aim.

4-56. Control provides the commander freedom to operate, delegate authority, and lead from any position on the battlefield while synchronizing actions vertically and horizontally throughout the AO. Control derives from understanding the commander's intent, training units and soldiers, rehearsing, and maintaining continual dialogue among commanders at all levels. Proper control ensures all operations are synchronized and sustained throughout their duration. The process is directed towards ensuring that the efforts of all elements are synchronized and adjusted as the situation dictates. Additionally, it maintains the focus on the intended end state and purpose expressed in the commander's intent. Skilled staffs work within the commander's intent to direct and control units and allocate the means to support the intent.

4-57. The role of the staff is defined and focused by the commander. The staff and subordinates assist the commander in developing, modifying, and improving the initial versions of courses of action. They perform the intelligence gathering and planning. It is through the staff and battle command systems that the commander exercises control. Staffs compute requirements, allocate means, and integrate efforts. They monitor the status of organizations, identify variance, correct deviations, and push analyzed information to the commander. Staffs acquire and apply means to carry out the commander's intent and develop specific instructions from general guidance.

4-58. The EAC brigade is under the command of the AAMDC and OPCON to the land component commander (LCC). Corps ADA brigades are under the command and control of the supported corps commander. Both EAC and corps ADA brigades follow the weapon control procedures and measures established by the AADC for conducting theater air and missile defense. Figure 4-5 shows the command and control structure for ADA brigades in a mature theater.

4-59. The control chain is a more complex structure than the command structure. In a US environment, the theater commander assigns responsibility for overall air defense and airspace control to a single commander. This may be any commander, but is usually the Air Force component commander (AFCC) who is both the AADC and the airspace control authority (ACA). The AADC manages by coordinating and integrating the entire counterair and active defense effort within the theater. The AADC may create air defense regions and appoint a commander for each.

4-60. The region air defense commanders (RADC) may be selected from any service component. The RADC is fully responsible for and has full authority for the air defense of the region. The CRC supervises the surveillance and control activated of subordinate radar elements, provides means for air traffic identification, and directs region air defense. The CRC exercises engagement control over both the EAC and corps ADA brigades. The AAMDC exercises operational control less engagement control over the EAC ADA brigade while the corps commander exercises OPCON less engagement control over the corps ADA brigade.

4-61. The battle command style of the commander shapes the structure of the supporting communications system. The commander is able to move freely about the battlefield and is electronically linked with the command post to access time-sensitive data and to influence the battle. Reliable communications are imperative to battle command and to control. Effective battle command requires reliable signal support systems to enable the commander to conduct operations at varying tempos over extended distances. Good signal planning increases the commander's options to exploit success and facilitate future operations.

4-62. Space-based systems provide commanders with intelligence, reconnaissance, surveillance, navigation, and early warning and positioning information that facilitate battle command. Satellite communications support all AMD task forces. These space-based systems significantly upgrade the speed and accuracy of information that commanders exchange.

4-63. Tactical information must be communicated among commanders, staffs, and weapons systems. The commander must be able to communicate his intent while moving freely about the battlefield. Electronically linked with the command post, the commander must be able to access time sensitive operational and intelligence information to assess and influence the battle at the critical time and place. A seamless, secure communications network that provides horizontal and vertical integration of voice, data, graphics, imagery and video information is essential. This network supports integrated combat operations and focuses on the warfighting commander.

4-64. The modern battlefield, including the airspace above it, is becoming increasingly saturated. Executing the airspace control function requires a joint effort by using service airspace C² systems as a framework for integration.

4-65. The ACA develops a joint airspace control plan that establishes coordination and identification procedures, and responsibilities of airspace controllers. It segments the airspace for various airspace users. The ACA promulgates a daily airspace control plan in conjunction with the JFACC ATO planning cycle. The LCC is normally delegated airspace management authority below an established coordinating altitude. The corps may publish its own ACO for Army aviation operations below the coordinating altitude. AMD involvement in airspace control stems from the fact that AMD weapons control procedures are directly affected by airspace control measures. The ADA Brigade coordinates planning with the force Army airspace command and control (A²C²) element to influence the development of an airspace plan that meets JFC objectives and does not unduly constrain ADA operations. CRCs and corps ATC elements positively manage friendly air traffic control above and below the coordinating altitude respectively.

4-66. Army headquarters can obtain the ACO from Air Force liaison elements such as the corps air support operations center (ASOC) or from Army liaison elements located in Air Force headquarters such as the BCE. Current automation capabilities permit the ACO to be distributed on computer disk or electronically by various means. The CADE and AAMDC coordinate directly with the A²C² element and pass the current ACO and any corps ACMs to the brigade. If possible, this coordination is done electronically. The ADA brigade provides all relevant measures to subordinate SHORAD and HIMAD battalions. AMD battalions ensure that all AMD firing units are in possession of current ACO information. The Patriot battalion may pass the ACO electronically to subordinate fire units by using established data links. ACMs are checked at every echelon for accuracy before implementation.

4-67. Joint doctrine outlines numerous means for allocating or reserving airspace for various military purposes. AMD ROE vary with each measure. FM 3-100.1 describes the principal airspace control means, but combatant commanders and joint force commanders may implement other measures based on theater requirements. Because AMD operations occur within the air environment, they must be synchronized with air operations by airspace control means as well as by positive control. ADA units may require special airspace control volumes to accomplish their missions. The following paragraphs describe some airspace control means used by ADA units.

4-68. A missile engagement zone (MEZ) is a weapons engagement zone (WEZ) for HIMAD operations. It is a defined volume of airspace where a specific type of AD weapon is preferred for use in an engagement of high priority targets. A MEZ is activated through the STO, which is promulgated by the AADC or the DAADC.

4-69. The AADC uses WEZs to segment the air defense battle space as a fire distribution tool. DCA fighters have primary responsibility for air defense within fighter engagement zones, while HIMAD units have priority within a MEZ. For the ADA brigade, the MEZ represents the AADC's establishment of the HIMAD area of operations in the third dimension of the battlefield. HIMAD units cannot engage outside a MEZ unless ordered or in self-defense. Finally, the MEZ serves as a 'NOTAMS' warning to aircraft that SAM engagement operations are ongoing.

4-70. For EAC ADA units OPCON to the AADC, the MEZ may be allocated in conjunction with an area defense mission order. For corps ADA units, the MEZ is not a mission but an AO. It continuously adjusts to encompass mobile corps AMD defenses. The AMDCOORD coordinates through AMD channels to plan a phased sequence of MEZs, normally coinciding with the corps boundaries and the forward/rear limits of HIMAD coverage. The BCE ensures that MEZ requirements get incorporated into the ACO.

4-71. A weapons free zone (WFZ) is a volume of airspace where the governing weapons control status is WEAPONS FREE. WEAPONS FREE can apply generally or can apply to a specific air platform. WEAPONS FREE could also be specified as applicable only to HIMAD, though it is more relevant to SHORAD systems. ADA commanders often desire a weapons free zone because it simplifies the target identification problem and speeds the engagement process. Fratricide is a major consideration, however, in determining the advisability of a weapons free zone. The force commander and his AMDCOORD must weigh the risks of losing close air support in the designated area against the risks associated with enemy air attacks. If the commander is relying mainly on his own air maneuver assets for aerial fire support, then a weapons free zone for fixed wing aircraft may be feasible. If the enemy can achieve air superiority over the force, then a WFZ over a critical asset may be advisable.

4-72. Control is inherent in command. To control is to regulate forces and functions to execute the commander's intent. The commander establishes positive controls and procedural controls to regulate the execution of the operation. Together with a clearly stated commander's intent, effective controls are vital for decentralized execution of operations. A mix of positive and procedural controls governs ADA units. Patriot air battle operations are positively controlled by engagement orders passed through voice and data links from battalion, brigade, and AADC fire control facilities. A team chief/squad leader visually identifying an aircraft, positively controls SHORAD engagements. Procedural controls include rules of engagement (ROE), airspace control orders, hostile criteria, and weapons control status, SAM tactical orders, and other more general orders. The AADC is the joint force authority for promulgating positive and procedural control measures.

4-73. Positive controls provide a means to put "eyes" on a target, to order engagement by a specific fire unit, and to monitor the engagement. Positive control minimizes the risk of fratricide and is a basic requirement for SHORAD as well as HIMAD engagement operations. Positive control also serves to distribute or mass AMD fires. It facilitates mutual support between fire units during an air battle. Positive controls are important for both force and engagement operations. AMD commanders are the primary authority for positive control. Liaison officers extend this control by representing him in an adjacent C² headquarters.

4-74. HIMAD positive control is enabled by a recognized air picture (RAP) that synthesizes data from multi-service intelligence and air defense sensors, correlates air tracks, and identifies them based on an integrated airspace control plan and established hostile criteria. The AADC is responsible for producing the RAP for the joint force and for specifying the level of control. The ADA brigade FDC receives and distributes the RAP. The RAP is provided to subordinate HIMAD fire units over TADIL-J. With FAAD C³I, the RAP can also be distributed to subordinate SHORAD battalions for early warning.

4-75. Control of engagements is effected by a network of C² centers. The AADC identifies how HIMAD engagements will be generally controlled by specifying the mode of control and the level of control. The mode of control prescribes the AD echelon at which positive management of the air battle is being conducted. This can be an AOC, CRC, ADA brigade FDC, battalion FDC, or an individual fire unit. The level of control identifies the engagement authority or the element authorized to order the engagement of an air target. There are two modes of positive control for HIMAD operations. Centralized control is used when fratricide is a paramount concern. Fire units will only engage an air target when ordered by the engagement authority. Decentralized control is used when attrition of the enemy is the main concern. Fire units may engage enemy targets at will during decentralized control. In decentralized corps AMD operations, the battalion and brigade FDCs monitor the air battle and intervene to prevent target engagement by more than one fire unit or to ensure proper fire distribution.

4-76. Standard fire control commands are established in FM 3-01 for AMD engagements. ADA fire units that lose automated fire control link or voice communications to an engagement authority cannot be positively controlled. They are subject to procedural controls and continue to conduct operations in an autonomous operations mode of control. Unlike an EAC ADA brigade, which may be conducting AMD engagement operations under the control of the AADC, the corps ADA brigade missions normally involve force protection of a maneuvering corps. CRC may distribute fires and order engagements by an OPCON EAC ADA brigade unit but it may only veto engagement orders issued by the corps ADA brigade FDC based on intelligence or other factors.

4-77. Procedural controls supplement positive controls and compensate for a lack of adequate C⁴I capability. SHORAD battalions typically do not distribute the RAP to fire unit level and do not positively control engagement operations above fire unit. C⁴I outages can make HIMAD engagement operations dependent on procedural controls. Procedural controls include orders, reporting requirements, coordinating instructions, and SOPs.

4-78. Control of airspace is a force protection function, centrally directed at the joint force level by an appointed Airspace Control Authority (ACA). Efficient use of airspace maximizes friendly air maneuverability and facilitates AMD identification and engagement operations.

4-79. Engagement operations are controlled procedurally by established rules of engagement (ROE). ROE are promulgated at the joint force level. They establish criteria for engaging a target. The AMDCOORD recommends appropriate ROE for the operation.

4-80. Although applicable to all AMD systems, weapons control statuses (WCS) are procedural controls used mainly for SHORAD weapons engagements. They function similar to HIMAD modes of control. For example, WEAPONS FREE allows fire units to engage both hostile and unknown targets. It is useful in maximizing attrition in large air attacks. WEAPONS TIGHT allows fire units to engage only positively identified hostile targets and serves to minimize fratricide. WEAPONS HOLD prohibits all engagements except as specifically ordered or in self defense. This is useful in situations where other military or political considerations outweigh the benefits of engaging even a confirmed hostile target. WCSs can apply generally or can be specified for particular AMD weapons, aerial platforms, or for specific volumes of airspace. The ADA brigade CP ensures that all ADA fire units are in receipt of the current weapons control status.

4-81. All ADA fire units cannot be battle ready all the time. Commanders must manage force readiness so that fire unit maintenance, repositioning, and crew rest requirements are met, while sustaining an overall force posture consistent with the threat. The ADA brigade may use any or all of the tools outlined below to accomplish this.

4-82. Weapons alert designators (WAD) provide commanders guidance on the percent of fire units that must be at various states of readiness (SOR). These SORs may be defined in terms of readiness to fire or readiness to move and specific criteria for each should be established in the brigade tactical SOP. WAD are equally applicable to SHORAD and HIMAD units, though the SORs may differ. The corps SHORAD battalion, for example, may use a WAD system to provide guidance to platoon leaders on how many fire units must be battle ready for specific platoon missions. WADs are promulgated in the brigade OPORD and managed by battalion commanders. Figures 4-6 and 4-7 outline a sample WAD system.

4-83. Irrespective of overall force readiness, air defense warnings (ADW) establish the commander's estimate of the probability of near term air attack. The AADC establishes the baseline ADW for the joint force. Subordinate air defense commanders may issue a higher but not lower ADW for their AO. ADWs are disseminated to all AMD elements and fire units. The CADE is responsible for issuing or retransmitting the ADW from the corps CP.

4-84. Large scale US military operations will often be multi-national operations, conducted with the military forces of other nations toward a common purpose. Existing multinational structures are evolving toward multinational integration at lower levels. Within US Army Europe, for example, the V (US) Corps is organized in peacetime with assigned US and German divisions. ADA units might similarly receive missions putting them in support of or under the operational command of an allied headquarters. The ADA Brigade will be required to integrate with adjacent allied ADA headquarters into a multinational C² structure. A combined joint force may be organized around an existing military framework like NATO or may be ad hoc and temporary. A corps JTF might also be a combined JTF. An important task in combined AMD operations is to minimize the impact of differences in language, national doctrine, training, organization, and equipment on the combined force operation. This can be done through effective liaison, well-coordinated planning, and clearly articulated joint force goals and intent.

4-85. Effective battle command enables active defense forces to successfully perform their combat missions and support overall force objectives. The following fundamental principles form the basis for active defense engagement operations.

• Centralized planning with decentralized control
• Air battle management
• Management by exception

4-86. Although these principles apply to both air and missile defense activities, they particularly relate to the management of missile defense operations.

4-87. Centralized control permits the full exploitation of the combat effectiveness of AMD operations at each level of command. Centralized control ensures unity of effort. Decentralized execution provides subordinate commanders the flexibility to achieve the tenet of agility.

4-88. Centralized control is essential to ensure integration and coordination of all AMD assets from the AADC down to the AMD fire unit. Centralized control also facilitates the synchronization of offensive and defensive operations within the Army and among participants in joint or multinational operations. In the case of corps and divisional ADA, centralized control is executed through compliance with the theater ROE and air defense weapon control procedures. Data integration and operational coordination complete the synchronization.

4-89. Decentralized execution is necessary because of the number of activities associated with air defense operations. One commander cannot effectively control all air defense forces and actions. Decentralized execution also enables air defense assets to maximize their individual capabilities and meet the extreme engagement time lines of air and missile threats. Thorough planning and coordination link centralized control and decentralized execution.

4-90. The related functions of airspace control and active defense engagement operations are coordinated through the principle of air battle management that maximizes both offensive and defensive effectiveness. Air battle management is essential in an air environment that has large quantities of both threat and friendly air users. Current weapon systems, although highly sophisticated, do not possess infallible identification technology. Therefore, the goal of air battle management is to control the engagement of air targets, ensuring the destruction of enemy air targets while preventing fratricide and unnecessary multiple engagements.

4-91. Extensive coordination is necessary to prevent interference among all airspace users. As a participant in air battle management, the AMDCOORD at each level of command ensures close coordination among all airspace users. Management of the air battle employs a mix of positive and procedural control measures.

4-92. Positive control relies upon real-time data from sensors, IFF, computers, digital data links, and communications equipment to provide airspace and missile defense control. Positive control is desirable but not always possible due to battlefield conditions and inherent system vulnerabilities. Facilities for positive control are subject to direct attack, sabotage, or jamming. Line-of-sight requirements and limited communications assets can also restrict the availability of data from facilities that are operational.

4-93. Procedural control overcomes positive control and identification shortcomings. Procedural control relies upon techniques such as segmenting airspace by volume and time and using WCS. Procedural techniques are usually more restrictive than positive control techniques but are less vulnerable to degradation from electronic or physical attack. Procedural control enhances the continuity of operations under the adverse conditions on the battlefield. For example, it provides an immediate backup system should degradation of positive control occur. Additionally, procedural techniques provide a management means for missile defense systems that do not have real-time data transmission or receipt capabilities.

4-94. The optimum method of controlling active defense operations is a mix of positive and procedural techniques. Commanders charged with air battle management consider the factors of METT-TC in their analysis and specifically focus on mission, AO, and the threat expected.

4-95. For positive management, commanders also consider the numbers and types of electronic means available. This will vary according to the depth of the battlefield. As operations move farther forward, available means for positive control decrease, necessitating additional procedural management.

4-96. The nature of the theater may also dictate what type of control is used. Mature theaters have elaborate and tested electronic management facilities. Contingency theaters may have no such systems and will rely more heavily on procedural control. As the lodgment area expands and additional assets arrive in theater, a transition to more positive control may take place.

4-97. The principle of management by exception indicates the difficulty of one commander directing the overall air battle on a real-time basis. The AADC must supplement positive control with procedural techniques to ensure coordination and provide unified direction to the battle. Tactical situations may arise that procedural or positive control rules and directives do not address. In these instances, management by exception would take place to ensure proper fire distribution, to prevent engagement of friendly air platform, or to prevent simultaneous engagements of hostile air targets.

4-98. Engagement operations procedures facilitate the integration of missile defense into both the force commander's concept of operation and the battle for air superiority. The AADC establishes and promulgates JFC approved ROE for air and missile defense. Additionally, the AADC in conjunction with the ACA and component commanders may establish airspace coordination areas such as fighter and missile engagement zones. The principal army users of the procedures are ADA units, but all participants in air and missile defense operations must adhere to these procedures.

4-99. Warning procedures and alert status prepare or cause units to build up for combat. Most warning procedures and alert statuses have specific applications for air defense forces.

4-100. Defense readiness conditions (DEFCON) describe progressive alert postures primarily for use between the JCS and the commanders of unified commands. DEFCONs are graduated to match situations of varying military severity and are numbered from one to five as appropriate. DEFCONs are most applicable to national missile defense.

4-101. WADs describe a progressive system of alert postures. The AMD commander specifies minimum percentages of ADA fire units within the parent organization, which are required to be at a given state of readiness. AMD commanders use WADs to meet the threat, provide readiness, and allow crew rest among other tactical concerns.

4-102. States of readiness (SOR) describe the degree of readiness of ADA fire units and sensors expressed in minutes from time of alert notification to time of weapon firing or sensor in operation. SOR are based on the WAD and ADW. SOR for SHORAD units may be designated down to the platoon level. SOR can specify personnel manning requirements. SOR can be modified to include emission control and system configuration considerations. These are called states of emission control (SOE). ADA commanders use WAD and SOR to ready the force in a logical way for action against the enemy while retaining the ability for units to rest or perform maintenance.

4-103. States of emission (SOE) prescribes the number and type of emitters or transmitters in operation. SOEs are initiated during combat operations. All electronic emissions must be carefully controlled. Emission control (EMCON) begins with passive techniques to prevent detection by the enemy. SOEs may have different characteristics based on systems or commands or both. SOEs are designated by the AADC and tied to each theater.

4-104. ADWs represent the commander's evaluation of the probability of air attack within the AO. Area or region air defense commanders routinely issue ADWs. Any commander can also issue them. However, the local ADW can be no lower than the overall ADW issued by the air defense area or region commander. The issuance of an ADW is not tied to any other warning procedure or alert status. A commander may issue an ADW regardless of DEFCON or WAD. However, ADWs can be used by a commander to influence the readiness posture of ADA units by raising or lowering the WAD or SOR. The three ADWs are discussed in the following paragraphs.

4-105. ADW Red warns that an attack by hostile aircraft or missiles is imminent or in progress. This means that hostile aircraft or missiles are within a respective AO, or are in the immediate vicinity of a respective AO with a high probability of entry thereto.

4-106. ADW YELLOW warns that an attack by hostile aircraft or missiles is probable. This means that hostile aircraft or missiles are enroute toward a respective AO, or unknown aircraft or missiles suspected to be hostile are enroute towards, or are within, a respective AO.

4-107. ADW WHITE warns that an attack by hostile aircraft or missiles is improbable. ADW white can be declared before or after ADW yellow or red.

4-108. Air defense emergency (ADE) is an emergency condition declared by the Commander in Chief, North American Aerospace Defense Command. ADE is declared when an attack upon the continental United States, Canada, or US installations in Greenland by hostile aircraft or missiles is considered probable, imminent, or taking place. ADE can be declared worldwide when the SSTO generated by AFCENT or AAMDC directs a unit to ADE.

4-109. ROE are positive and procedural directives that specify the circumstances and limitations under which forces will initiate or continue combat engagements with enemy forces. The JFC approves the theater ROE. These established ROE enable the AADC to delegate the authority to execute air defense operations. The ROE also permit the AADC to retain control of the air battle by prescribing the exact conditions under which engagements may take place. ROE are a direct reflection of the centralized control with decentralized execution principles of air defense. ROE apply to all warfare participants in the theater and are disseminated to all echelons of air, land, and sea forces.

4-110. Commanders have the responsibility to take whatever action is necessary to protect their forces and equipment against air or missile attack. When under attack, the right of self-defense takes precedence over any other established rules and procedures that normally govern engagements.

4-111. Hostile criteria are basic rules that assist in the identification of friendly or hostile air platforms. These rules are promulgated by the commanders of unified commands and other appropriate commanders when authorized. The commander who establishes hostile criteria parameters may consider the factors of speed, altitude, heading, or other requirements within specified volumes of airspace. The commander also considers specific enemy characteristics or hostile acts. Echelons having identification authority use hostile criteria to determine the identification of detected air targets. The highest echelon capable of managing engagement operations normally retains identification authority. Fire units with real-time data transmission capability assist the controlling authority by forwarding target information. The controlling authority makes final target identification and delegates engagement authority. Delegation of the controlling and identification authority to lower echelons is normal for ADA and non-ADA units that do not have real-time transmission capability for identification data. Such units have both identification and engagement authority. Because TMs are uniquely classified and identified separately, TMs launched from hostile territory are considered hostile immediately upon detection.

4-112. WCS describes the relative degree of control of air defense fires. WCS applies to weapons systems, volumes of airspace, or types of air platforms. The degree or extent of control varies depending on the tactical situation. Establishment of separate WCS for fixed and rotary-wing aircraft and for missiles is normal. Air defense forces must have the ability to receive and disseminate WCS for all classes of air platforms. The AADC imposes the fixed-wing WCS. The AADC normally delegates the authority for establishing rotary-wing WCS to the appropriate maneuver force commander. The AADC may also delegate WCS for UAVs to the maneuver force commander. The maneuver force commander may further delegate the authority to subordinate maneuver commanders based on the tactical situation or operation. Maneuver commanders who do not have authority to establish WCS still may direct a more restrictive WCS in their AO. The following paragraphs define WCSs.

4-113. Weapons can fire at any air target not positively identified as friendly. This is the least restrictive WCS.

4-114. Weapons can fire only at air targets positively identified as hostile according to the prevailing hostile criteria. Positive identification can be effected by a number of means to include visual ID (aided or unaided) and meeting other designated hostile criteria supported by track correlation.

4-115. Weapons do not fire except in self-defense or in response to a formal order. This is the most restrictive WCS.

4-116. Describes the AD echelon at which positive management of the air battle is being conducted. This can be an AOC, CRC, ADA brigade FDC, ADA battalion FDC, or the individual fire unit. For missile defense operations, engagement control is delegated to the fire unit level.

4-117. The two modes of control are centralized and decentralized. The mode of control selected will depend upon the capabilities of the C⁴I system, the weapons systems being employed, and both the friendly and enemy air situation.

4-118. Centralized control is where a higher echelon commander dictates target engagements to fire units. Permission to engage each track must be requested by the fire unit from that higher AD echelon. Centralized control is used to minimize the likelihood of engaging friendly aircraft, while permitting engagements of hostile aircraft only when specific orders are issued to initiate the engagement.

4-119. Decentralized control is the normal wartime mode of control for AMD, whereby a higher echelon monitors unit action, making direct target assignments to units only when necessary to ensure proper fire distribution, to prevent engagements of friendly aircraft, and to prevent simultaneous engagements of hostile aircraft. Decentralized control is used to increase the likelihood that a hostile aircraft or missile will be engaged as soon as it comes within range of an AMD weapons system. Control of engagement operations during the air battle can be centralized at a higher headquarters FDC, or decentralized to a subordinate FDC. For instance, in a situation where battle management has been decentralized down to the battalion FDC, the battalion commander exercises control of the engagement operations. At the same time, the brigade FDC is continuously monitoring the actions of the battalion FDC. The brigade FDC is exercising decentralized control, while the battalion FDC is exercising centralized control. Thus, centralized control and decentralized control are conducted simultaneously at different echelons.

4-120. An autonomous operation is the mode of operation assumed by a unit after it has lost all communications with higher echelons. The unit commander assumes responsibility for control of weapons and engagement of hostile targets. Rules of engagement in effect at the time of loss of communications remain in effect unless prescribed or ordered otherwise.

4-121. Fire control orders are used to control engagements on a case-by-case basis regardless of the prevailing WCS. Higher control echelons, when monitoring the decentralized operations of subordinate units, most often use these commands. Fire control orders can be transmitted electronically or verbally. The following paragraphs describe fire control orders.

4-122. Command used to order a unit to fire on a specific target. This order cancels any previous fire control order given that target.

4-123. Command used to stop tactical action against a specified target. This command is always followed by an engage command. It is used to change an ongoing engagement of one target to another of higher priority. Missiles in flight are allowed to continue to intercept.

4-124. Emergency fire control order used to stop firing and all tactical action. Missiles in flight are destroyed. This order is used to protect friendly air.

4-125. Command given to ADA units to refrain from firing on, but to continue to track an airborne object. Missiles in flight are allowed to continue to intercept. This command is used to prevent simultaneous target engagements by manned fighters and ADA units.

4-126. Command used to order a fire unit to a posture that allows engagement of a target if directed. For radar directed systems, this means achieving a radar lock on the target. This order can be used for targets that are being engaged by another fire unit or for targets that may become a significant threat. Units receiving this command report tracking, lock on, and ready to fire statuses. This command does not apply to Patriot.

4-127. This command applies to Patriot units. It is used to restrain a fire unit from automatically engaging a target. If the fire unit has not fired, target tracking continues. Missiles in flight are allowed to continue to intercept.

4-128. An emergency fire control order to temporarily halt the engagement sequence due to internally unsafe fire unit conditions. It is seldom transmitted outside the fire unit. This command can be given by anyone in the fire unit who detects an unsafe condition. The engagement continues after the unsafe condition has been corrected.

4-129. Supplemental fire control measures are procedural control measures which delineate or modify hostile criteria, delegate identification authority, or serve as aids in fire distribution or airspace control. Army commanders request the establishment of supplemental fire control measures through the A²C² system. The approval authority is normally the ACA located in the AOC. The following paragraphs describe supplemental fire control measures.

4-130. Air Defense Operations Area (ADOA) is an area and the airspace above it where procedures are established to minimize mutual interference between air defense and other operations. The following paragraphs describe the different ADOA designations.

4-131. This is an area and the airspace above it where friendly aircraft or AMD weapons are normally given precedence in operations except under specified conditions. This type of ADOA is primarily used to minimize mutual interference between friendly aircraft and AMD weapons systems. ADOA which have been prioritized for AMD weapons are similar to restricted operations areas for aircraft, except that ADOAs are normally in effect for longer periods of time.

4-132. Air defense area is the specifically defined airspace for which air defense must be planned and provided. This type of ADOA is primarily used for airspace control, but may also be used to define any area within which ADA units are operating.

4-133. Air defense identification zone (ADIZ) is the airspace of defined dimensions within which the ready identification, location, and control of airborne vehicles are required. This type of area is normally used only for airspace control. Extremely stringent hostile criteria and WCS will normally characterize areas within an ADIZ.

4-134. WEZ identifies a volume of defined airspace within which a specific type of AD weapon is preferred for use in an engagement. Use of WEZ does not preclude engagement of high-priority targets by more than one type of weapon system if centralized control of each weapons system involved is available. The activation of a WEZ can be used to delegate identification and engagement authority. The WEZ can be used for specific threats. For example, a manned aircraft WEZ can be established for fighters while AMD would still be able to engage missiles and UAVs. Commonly used WEZs include the following:

• Fighter Engagement Zone (FEZ): FEZ is established in an area where no effective surface-to-air capability is employed.
• Missile Engagement Zone (MEZ): MEZ is a volume of airspace that establishes control over engagements by HIMAD. A MEZ defines the volume of airspace within which these weapons can conduct engagements without specific direction from the authority establishing the WEZ.
• Short Range Air Defense Engagement Zone (SHORADEZ): SHORADEZ is an area of SHORAD deployment that may fall within a MEZ. Also, SHORAD assets may solely defend some areas. A SHORADEZ can be established to define the airspace within which these assets will operate. Because centralized control over short-range air defense weapons may not be possible, these areas must be clearly defined and promulgated so that friendly air can avoid them.
• Joint Engagement Zone (JEZ): JEZ is a concept under study. In a JEZ, AD forces from two or more components (one airborne and one surface based) operate together in the same volume of airspace. If the targets meet specified hostile criteria, the controlling authority can conduct AMD engagements within an activated WEZ. This holds true regardless of the level of control, weapons control status, or hostile criteria in effect outside of the activated WEZ. Thus, an activated WEZ supplements AMD hostile criteria and is used by FDCs and fire units to make target assignments and engagement decisions.

4-135. High-density airspace control zone (HIDACZ) is airspace of defined dimensions in which there is a concentrated employment of numerous and varied airspace users. These can include aircraft, artillery, mortar, naval gunfire, local AD weapons, UAVs, and SAMs. The airspace control authority, upon request of ground commanders, establishes HIDACZs. HIDACZ is established when the level and intensity or airspace operations dictate the need for special airspace control measures. The number of such zones will vary depending on the combat situation and the complexities of airspace control in conjunction with fire support coordination. The establishment of a HIDACZ normally will increase temporary airspace restrictions within the volume of defined airspace. Additionally, establishment of a HIDACZ within a maneuver area will normally give that maneuver commander complete weapons control status authority within the activated HIDACZ.

4-136. Weapons free zones are air defense zones established for the protection of key assets. Units are at weapons free within this zone.

4-137. Temporary airspace restrictions can be imposed on segments of airspace of defined dimensions in response to specific situations and requirements. These include combat air patrol operations, air-refueling areas, and concentrated interdiction areas. Restrictions include the following measures:

• Identification of the airspace user being restricted
• Period, area, altitude, and height of restriction
• Procedures for cancellation or modification of the restriction in event of communications loss

4-138. Temporary airspace restrictions contain four common areas. These are restricted operations areas, minimum risk routes, standard use Army aircraft flight routes (SAAFR) and air corridors, and sectors of fire and primary target lines.

4-139. Restricted operations area defines the dimensions of airspace where the operation of one or more airspace users is generally restricted for a short time. The ACA establishes these areas in response to the requests of ground forces commanders. Consequently, the maneuver unit commander will normally have complete weapons control status authority within an activated restricted operations area. Restricted operations areas for air and missiles can be established to maximize AMD effectiveness. In such cases, the normal AMD weapons control status will be weapons free. Restricted operations areas for AMD can be established to maximize air effectiveness. In such cases, the normal AMD weapons control status will be weapons hold.

4-140. A minimum risk route (MRR) is a temporary corridor of defined dimensions of airspace. It can pass in either direction through AMD defenses, a HIDACZ, or a restricted operations area. It is designed to reduce risk to high-speed aircraft transiting the tactical operations area at low altitudes. The WCS for MRR will normally be weapons tight. This allows a more flexible air defense method. AD procedures apply if friendly air does not use the MRR. Low-level transit routes are the NATO equivalent of MRR.

4-141. The weapons control status for ADA fire units whose engagement ranges intercept and activate MRR remains at weapons tight for that part of the route. Should it become necessary to change to weapons free, the commander who established it will close that particular route.

4-142. SAAFR and air corridor are temporary corridors of defined airspace dimensions. They are established below the coordinating altitude to allow the Army commander to safely move aviation assets performing combat support and combat service support missions. They normally are located in the corps through brigade rear areas but may be extended to support logistics missions. Air corridors are restricted routes of travel for use by friendly Army aircraft and established to prevent friendly forces from firing on friendly aircraft.

4-143. The WCS for AD fire units whose engagement ranges intercept an activated SAAFR or air corridor remains at WEAPONS TIGHT for that part of the route or corridor. Should it become necessary to change to weapons free, the commander who established it will close that particular route. Procedures for deconfliction of friendly surface-to-surface missile firings and UAV operations can be found in FM 3-52.1.

4-144. Sectors of fire and primary target lines (PTL) are established to assist in the distribution of AMD fires. Sectors of fire for HIMAD are normally designated at battalion after review of fire unit radar coverage diagrams. The battery commander or platoon leader normally designates sectors of fire or PTL for SHORAD units. These limits must be clearly defined by right and left azimuths. Those ADA units with automated tactical data systems must know whether they are to assign and engage air targets within or beyond the stated sector boundaries.

4-145. To effectively plan and fight the air and missile defense battle, coordination must be accomplished between the following organizations:

• From the AAMDC to the JFC, host nation, allies, JFACC, AADC, ACA, JFLCC, ARFOR commander, BCD, EAC ADA brigades, and corps ADA brigades
• From the EAC ADA brigade to the AAMDC, AADC, ACA, CRC, JFLCC, ARFOR Commander, corps ADA brigades, and subordinate ADA battalions. If the AAMDC is not present, than the EAC brigade coordinates as the AAMDC does above.
• From the corps ADA brigade to the AAMDC, AADC, ACA, CRC, BCD, EAC ADA brigades, subordinate ADA battalions, the corps TOC, and maneuver division TOCs.

Figure 4-8 illustrates the AMD command and coordination requirements.

4-146. Liaison is essential in multinational and joint operations. Liaison personnel must be familiar with the staff and operational organizations, doctrine, and procedures of the force with which they will work.

4-147. AAMDC provides a liaison officer (LNO) and team to the following organizations: JFLCC, JFACC, JFMCC, JSOTF, ACA, AADC, Theater Commander, DOCC, and BCD. It is also responsible for providing a team to Allied headquarters and host nations as required.

4-148. The EAC brigade provides a liaison team to the CRC. In addition to this liaison requirement, the EAC ADA brigade must be prepared to fill liaison requirements of the AAMDC if it is not present in theater. This includes performing the duties of the TAAMDCOORD.

4-149. The corps brigade provides liaison teams to the CRC and the corps HQ. Additionally, the corps ADA brigade may have to fill the liaison requirements of the AAMDC and EAC brigade if they are not present in theater. This includes performing the duties of the TAAMDCOORD.

4-150. The commander of the highest echelon Army air defense command in the theater normally acts as the JFLCC TAAMDCOORD. This could be the commander of a battalion, corps brigade, EAC brigade, or the AAMDC. The TAAMDCOORD serves as the JFLCC's principal advisor and coordinator for theater counterair and theater missile defense operations. The TAAMDCOORD performs the following functions:

• Acts as the AMDCOORD to the JFLCC, the JFACC, and the AADC
• Ensures that the Army is an integral part of joint counterair and active missile defense operations and planning at theater level
• Participates in the J3 or DCSOPS planning cells and assists in developing Army OCA and DCA input to the air operations plan as a special staff officer to the JFLCC
• Participates in the integration of Army TMD operations
• Participates in the AADC's DCA planning as AMDCOORD and Army AMD representative to the JFACC
• Ensures that corps air and missile defense requirements are integrated into joint counterair and TMD planning
• Contributes the majority of the joint force surface to air missile forces
• Deploys forces in both the combat and communications zones and influences tactical operations by shifting the AMD force between these two areas based on the concept of operation