ASTP Soyuz-19 Mission
PROGRAM DETAILS OF MAN-RELATED FLIGHTS
THE APOLLO-SOYUZ TEST PROJECT
By Vikki A. Zegel*
1971-1975
The Soyuz 19 mission was the Soviet portion of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, (ASTP), a joint United States and Soviet space endeavor in 1975. Launched July 15, 1975 from Tyuratam with cosmonauts Col. Aleksey A. Leonov and Valeriy N. Kubasov on board, the Soyuz 19 craft remained in orbit for 6 days. During this time, rendezvous and docking exercises, hardware tests, crew exchanges and joint experiments were carried out with the simultaneously orbiting United States Apollo spacecraft and crew. The Soviet portion of the mission was successfully completed on July 21, 1975 , with the two cosmonauts landing safely near Arkalyk, some 2,000 km southeast of Moscow .
The ASTP had been provided for as part of an agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union on cooperation in the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, signed May 24, 1972 .
Preparations for the project involved nearly three years of joint working group exchanges, engineering and technical design developments, cosmonaut training sessions, language education, mission simulations, and a host of historically unprecedented cooperative achievements.
The ASTP proved to be a project of both political and technological significance for both nations. The successful demonstration of the androgynous peripheral docking system (APDS), designed jointly by United States and Soviet engineers for the mission, was the major technological achievement. Politically, the successful completion of the mission was felt to have strengthened the spirit of detente between the two countries, and to have laid the groundwork for their possible future cooperative efforts in space. In addition, the Soviet space program was, for the first time, brought more directly into public view, with unprecedented coverage by the media of launches, landings and mission highlights. This can only be viewed as a political "plus" for the Soviet Union , as public approval of an already popular program was thereby strengthened.
In retrospect, the mission may be viewed as a political step forward for both nations toward the realization of the goals set forth in the May 24,1972 agreement.
I. MISSION SUMMARY (l)
Soyuz 19 was launched at 1220 GMT July 15, 1975 from the Baykonur Cosmodrome near Tyuratam. Approximately seven and one-
•Ms. Zegel Is an analyst in life sciences, Science Policy Research Division, Congressional Research Service. The Library of Congress.
half hours later (1950 GMT) the United States Apollo craft was launched from the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral , Florida . Launched in a north-easterly direction, the Soyuz 19 was inserted into a 188 by 228 km orbit at an inclination of 51.8°. On the fourth and seventeenth orbits the Soyuz completed two maneuvers to circularize the orbit at 225 km. The Apollo craft, also launched in a north-easterly direction, was inserted into a 150 by 167 km orbit, with the same inclination of 51.8°. About one hour after Apollo orbital insertion, the Apollo Command and Service Module (CSM) began the transposition and docking procedure to extract the docking-module from the launch vehicle. (The maneuver was very similar to the Apollo extraction of the lunar module employed during lunar landing missions.) The Apollo spacecraft performed its orbital circularization maneuver at the third apogee to establish a controlled Apollo rendezvous maneuver sequence. After several phasing maneuvers by both spacecraft to adjust altitude differences, a co-elliptical orbit was achieved, thereby establishing a near-constant altitude differential between the two Rendezvous and docking of the two spacecraft were completed at 1615 GMT on July 17, 1975 . The Soyuz and Apollo remained docked for two days, completed several un-docking and re docking maneuvers and finally separated for the last time at 1530 GMT on July 19, 1975 . During the two days the spacecraft were docked, several crew transfers took place, but at no time were there more than three persons in one craft. Several joint experiments, which will be described in subsequent paragraphs, were also carried out during this period. Soyuz 19 landed safely at 1051 GMT July 21, 1975 , near Arkalyk some 2,000 km south-east of Moscow . (The Apollo craft splashed down at 2120 GMT in the Pacific Ocean near Hawaii July 24, 1975 . During their final descent, the three Apollo astronauts inhaled a small amount of nitrogen tetroxide, a poisonous gas, which had leaked into the Apollo cabin It was later determined that the leak occurred because the crewmen had failed to shut off manually the. spacecraft's rockets after realizing that the automatic switch had not been activated by Astronaut Brand that command had not been heard by Brand because of an excessive amount of interference noise in the spacecraft during re-entry The astronauts were kept under close surveillance in sick bay at Honolulu Hospital for two weeks following the flight, and NASA doctors dismissed them with clear health reports on August 7, 1975.)
A. ASTP CREWS
Four, two-man Soviet cosmonaut crews were named for the ASTP mission. These consisted of two prime and two backup crews, with the second crews prepared to launch after the first if there had been any delays in the United States Apollo launch schedule. As it turned out, the Soviet first prime crewmen, Col. Aleksev A. Leonov (Command Pilot) and civilian Valeriy N. Kubasov (Flight Engineer) became the actual ASTP Soviet crew. (Others named included: second prime crewmen Col. Anatoly V. Filipchenko and Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov; first backup crewmen Maj. Vladimir Dzanibekov and Boris Andreyev; and second backup crewmen Maj. Yuriy Romanenko and Aleksandr Ivanchenkov.)
The United States prime crew members were Brig. Gen. Thomas P. Stafford, Commander; Vance D. Brand, Command Module Pilot; and Donald K. ("Deke") Slayton, Docking Module Pilot. The United States only named one astronaut backup crew, consisting of Capt. Alan L. Bean, Capt. Ronald E. Evans, and Lt. Col. Jack E. Lousma.
B. ASTP HARDWARE
Soyuz 19 was a modified version of the Soyuz capsule used for all the other Russian manned Soyuz lights since 1967. One major modification was the compatible rendezvous and docking system, jointly designed by United States and Soviet engineers. (This same apparatus was carried on the outward end of the Docking Module, carried by the United States Apollo craft during the mission.) Another major change involved the Soyuz craft pressure and air composition control systems.
Soyuz pressure is ordinarily maintained at a normal atmospheric (sea-level) pressure of 760 mm Hg. The United States works at a low pressure of 260 mm Hg. In order to make crew transfers easier, the Soyuz pressure was reduced to 520 mm Hg. The oxygen content of the Soyuz nitrogen-oxygen air mixture was also increased to about 40% to bring it closer to the United States Apollo pure oxygen atmosphere. Several other modifications included changes in flight and attitude controls and radio communications systems, equipment additions, and adjustment of the life support system to enable it to handle more people during crew transfers. These changes required design adjustments of the Soyuz craft, which were tested during the Soyuz 16 (ASTP precursor) flight. The Soviet regular Soyuz launch vehicle was used for the ASTP.
The United States used its Saturn I-B launch vehicle to put the Apollo module into orbit. The Apollo Command and Service Module itself was a modified version of the CSM used during the earlier Apollo lunar landing missions. Modifications included provision for experiments, extra propellant tanks, and the addition of controls and equipment required for proper operation of the Docking Module and the universal docking system. The Docking Module was cylindrical in shape, having a diameter of approximately 1.5 meters and a length of about 3 meters. It served as an airlock for the internal transfer of crew-men between the different atmospheres of the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft. The Docking Module was equipped with radio and TV communications, antennas, stored gases, heaters, and the displays and controls necessary for transfer operations. The Docking Module was designed to handle two crewmen simultaneously. Hatches having controls on both sides were installed at each end of the module. A universal docking system capable of functioning with similar components on the Soyuz-type spacecraft was located at the Soyuz receiving end of the Module. The Apollo end of the Docking Module used the same type of system that was used in the Apollo lunar landing missions for docking between the Command Module and the Lunar Module.
C. ASTP EXPERIMENTS (2)
The program of scientific experiments conducted during the mission included both unilateral and joint experiments. In the following paragraphs, these are designated as "U" (U.S.S.R. only) or "J" (joint experiments):
1. Photography of the solar corona and zodiacal light against the back-ground of the night sky (U)
A. number of shots of the night and dusk sky with the sun at different angles behind the Earth's horizon (conditions of solar eclipse by the Earth) were taken in an attempt to find coronal rays at large angular distances from the Sun.
2. Investigation of refraction and transparency of the upper layers of the atmosphere (U)
Atmospheric refraction was determined from solar disc image flattening in photographs taken of the Sun as it rose and set behind the Earth's horizon. Photographs were also taken of setting stars.
3. Photography of daytime and dusk horizon (U)
Visual observation and photography of light effects in the vicinity of the spacecraft were carried out in an attempt to determine the characteristics of light-scattering by atmospheric air, investigate various layers of aerosol, investigate certain types of clouds, and analyze the dependence of altitude aerosol distribution on geographical and meteorological factors.
4. Microorganisms Growth (U)
To study the effects of weightlessness and space radiation and the Earth's magnetic field on the growth of microorganisms, a culture of protea vulgaris was placed in a thermostatically-controlled capsule known as a "Biokat" and observed.
5. Fish embryonic development (U)
To study the growth and development of water animals under space conditions, regular aquarium fish as well as their fertilized roe were inserted into "Biokat" aquaria for observation.
6. Genetic Experiments (U)
In order to study the effects of weightlessness on cell division and genetic mutation in biological organisms, various types of seeds were placed in one of the "Biokats" and observed.
7. Artificial Solar Eclipse (J)
A series of onboard photographs taken from the Soyuz of the solar corona "atmosphere" around the Apollo while it eclipsed the Sun provided a record of the first solar eclipse produced by man. This experiment was of particular interest to scientists because of the relative in frequency of naturally occurring solar eclipses.
8. Ultraviolet Absorption (J)
To measure the concentrations of atomic oxygen and nitrogen in space at the altitude of the mission, different types of mass-spectrometers were used on board. The method of resonance absorption within the ultraviolet spectrum was employed to determine the densities of these components of the outer atmosphere.
9. Zone-forming Fwngi (J)
In order to study the effects of space flight factors on biological rhythms, two cultures of the Pushchino strain of Actinomyces levories (fungi) were observed. Each had been cultivated within different time zones ( United States and Soviet Union ) approximately 9 hours apart, 7 days prior to launch.
10. Microbial Exchange Test (J)
Microflora microbial samples were taken from cosmonauts and astronauts before, during and after the flight to determine the character and conditions of microbial exchange among men confined in a sealed compartment.
11. Furnace System Experiments (J)
This series of joint "multipurpose furnace experiments" was conducted in order to determine the effects of weightlessness on some metallurgical and chemicrystallization processes in metals and semi conductors.
II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Since 1957, the two themes of United States-Soviet space relations have been competition and cooperation. With the passage of time, the competition in terms of propaganda has diminished and the tentative efforts on both sides to propose limited sharing of information and some joint experimentation have gradually strengthened.
A. ASTP AGREEMENT
The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was provided for as part of an agreement on cooperation in the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, signed May 24, 1972 in Moscow by then President Nixon and Chairman Kosygin. Article Three of that document states the following: (3)
The parties have agreed to carry out projects for developing compatible rendezvous and docking systems of the United States and Soviet manned spacecraft and stations in order to enhance the safety of manned flight in space and to provide the opportunity for conducting joint scientific experiments in the future. It is planned that the first experimental flight to test these systems be conducted during 1975, envisaging the docking of a U.S. Apollo-type spacecraft and a Soviet Soyuz-type spacecraft with visits of astronauts in each other's spacecrafts. The Implementation of these projects will be carried out on the basis of principles and procedures which will be developed in accordance with the summary of results of the meeting between representatives of the U S National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences on the question of developing compatible systems for rendezvous and docking and manned spacecraft and space stations of the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R., dated - April 6. 1972
B. U.S.-SOVTET COOPERATION
The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was the first joint manned, space mission involving the United States and the Soviet Union , but there have been several other cooperative space-related endeavors between the two nations.
Efforts to develop U.S.-Soviet cooperation in space research may be traced back to the early space projects planning in 1955 for the International Geophysical Year (IGYJ. Further efforts were made at various times, but none of these was generally productive until 1962. The United States at that time made specific proposals which resulted in talks between the late Soviet Academician Anatoliy A. Blagonravov, and the late Dr. Hugh L. Dryden, who was then Deputy Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. As a result, a three-part, bi-lateral space agreement was drawn up in
June 1962 which, provided for: 1.) coordinated U.S. and Soviet launchings of experimental meteorological satellites, with data to be exchanged over a Washington-Moscow "cold-line"; 2.) launchings by both countries of satellites equipped with absolute magnetometers, with subsequent exchange of data to arrive at a map of the Earth's magnetic field in space; and 3.) joint communications experiments using Echo 2, the U.S. passive satellite.
Unfortunately, the substance and timeliness of the weather data were disappointing, as were the results of the magnetic field maps agreement. Likewise, the passive communications efforts with. Echo 2 came to little.
The Dryden-Blagonravov talks led to a second agreement in November 1965, for the preparation and publication of a joint U.S. Soviet review of space biology and medicine. (This study has been completed, but, to date, has been distributed only in part.)
A new phase of the U.S.-Soviet space relationship began in 1969, when NASA Administrator Dr. Thomas 0. Paine wrote to Soviet Academy President Keldysh and Academician Blagonravov, inviting new initiatives in space cooperation, in general scientific fields, and in rendezvous and docking of manned spacecraft. It was agreed to pursue these suggestions.
The ASTP talks actually began in October 1970 when rendezvous and docking discussions were initiated in Moscow . These related to the possibility of each nation designing a manned spacecraft with a docking mechanism compatible with that of the other nation. More general discussions on this topic were resumed in January 1971. In agreements resulting from these talks, procedures were outlined where by the two countries could arrive at compatible systems, through a combination of coordination and independent action. Joint working groups were established which developed the technical understandings required for design of these systems. In April 1972, the necessary management and operational understandings were established to warrant, a government-level commitment to a joint test docking mission, the ASTP, in 1975. The possibility of using the compatible docking systems in future generations of spacecraft was also mentioned.
In addition to the aforementioned talks which led to the decision on the ASTP, broader discussions on cooperation in space science and applications took place in January 1971 in Moscow . As a result of these talks, an agreement was reached which provided for: (1) exchange of lunar samples obtained in Apollo and Luna programs: (2) exchange of weather satellite data between the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Soviet Hydrometerological Service; (3) coordination of networks of meteorological rocket sounding along selected meridional lines: (4) development of a coordinated program to utilize space and Earth resources survey techniques to investigate the natural environment in areas of common interest; (5) joint consideration of the most important scientific objectives for exchange of results from investigation of near-Earth space, the Moon, and the planets; and (6) exchange of detailed medical information of man's reaction to the space environment.
C. U.S. SOVIET PRELIMINARY TALKS
The following chronology traces the steps leading to the Apollo- Soyuz Test Project:
October 28, 1970 :
—Agreed to design compatible rendezvous and docking systems for future manned spacecraft.
—Agreed to a procedure by which the two sides could, through a combination of Independent action and coordination, arrive at compatible systems.
—Established three joint working groups.
June 21-25, 1971 :
—Agreed to study the technical and economic implications of early test missions using existing vehicles.
—Agreed on coordinate systems to be used for rendezvous purposes.
—Agreed on single documentation of requirements for atmospheres, hatches, and crew transfer techniques.
—Agreed on air lock volume.
—Agreed on placement of structural elements and equipment.
—Agreed on optical and radio beacon characteristics.
—Agreed on requirements for communications between spacecraft and between spacecraft and ground stations systems.
—Agreed on characteristics of control stations.
—Agreed on docking system basic functions and design features, and spacecraft mass properties.
November 29- December 6, 1971 :
—Agreed on technical feasibility of a test mission using existing spacecraft.
—Agreed on objectives and preliminary documentation requirements for a possible test mission.
—Substantially completed documentation on life support systems, coordinate systems and constraints on spacecraft configuration.
—Identified guidance and control systems and on-board equipment of U.S. and U.S.S.R. spacecraft which would need to be compatible.
—Substantially completed documentation on lights, docking targets and contact conditions, control systems and radio tracking.
—Agreed to basic values for a compatible docking system including tunnel diameter for astronaut passage.
—Reached preliminary agreement on the basis for design of an androgynous docking device.
April 4-6, 1972 :
—Confirmed the desirability of conducting a test mission using existing spacecraft in 1975.
—Accepted, as the basis for joint specification of management and operational guidelines for joint mission, documents on "Proposed Organization Plan for the
Apollo/Soyuz Test Mission ," "Apollo/Soyuz Test Mission Considerations," "A
Project Technical Proposal Document," and "A Project Schedule Document"
—Agreed on specific principles illustrative of those which will apply in the preparatory and operational periods:
—Frequent direct contact between project personnel on both sides.
—Detailed commitments to schedules.
—A comprehensive test, qualification, training and simulation program.
—Involvement of mission flight and ground crew personnel in joint working groups two years before the mission.
—Engineering agreement in July 1972.
—Control of own spacecraft and spacecraft situations, with certain preplanned guidelines to be worked out.
—Consultation on control actions affecting joint elements of the mission.
—Pre-planned in-flight information exchanges, including TV.
—Reciprocal language familiarity among flight crews.
—A public information program respecting the policies and practices of both sides.
1. Key Personnel
Soviet:
M. V. Keldysh, President, Academy of Sciences of the USSR
V. A. Kotelnikov, Vice-president, Academy of Sciences
B. N. Petrov, Academician and President of tntercosmos
K. D. Bushuyev, Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Director, Chairman of Joint Working Group One
V. P. Legostayev, Chairman, Working Group Two
V. S. Syromyatnikov, Chairman, Working Group Three
I. P. Kumyantsev, Intercosmos
United States :
G. M. Low, Deputy Administrator, NASA
D. D. Myers, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight NASA
A. W. Frutkin, Assistant Administrator for International Affairs NASA
R. R. Gilruth, Former Director, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center Houston , Texas
C. C. Kraft, Director, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center
G. S. Lunney, Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Director, Chairman, Working Group One
D. C. Cheatham, Chairman, Working Group Two
D. C. Wade, Chairman, Working Group Three
III. JOINT PREPARATIONS
Soon after the May 1972 agreement was signed, numerous joint working group meetings and astronaut-cosmonaut and flight crew training sessions were planned to take place in both the United States and the Soviet Union . The first planning session after the signing of the agreement, took place in July 1972 at the Manned Spaceflight Center in Houston . Members of this group were basically the same participants of the June 1971 meeting, who first discussed the feasibility of compatible docking systems for the joint project. Subsequent to the July 1972 meeting, working groups met regularly (some monthly) in both countries. In addition, the ASTP hardware underwent extensive verification testing at the NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston as well as at the U.S.S.R. Cosmodrome.
A. ASTRONAUT AND COSMONAUT TRAINING
Initial familiarization of Soviet cosmonaut and flight support crews with Apollo systems took place during a two-week session in Houston m July 1973. The United States crews were given an opportunity to work with the Soyuz craft during a subsequent joint session in Moscow in November 1973. The Soviet flight crews worked at the Johnson Space Center in late April and early May 1974, and were followed by a return visit of the United States crews to Moscow in June and July 1974. The Soviet cosmonauts visited the United States in September 1974 for a third joint crew training session, and they completed their fourth and final training session in the United States in February 1975. This exercise at the Johnson Space Center in Houston was very extensive, including training in the command and docking module simulators and mockups, joint language training, briefings on experiments, contingencies and mission rules, and other related activities. United States crew members visited the Soviet Union in late April and early May, 1975, to complete the joint crew training. The U.S. astronauts became the first Americans to view Soviet launch facilities when they visited Tyuratam on April 28, 1975 for a tour of ASTP-related hardware.
B. SIMULATIONS
In addition to the planning sessions, joint working group meetings, and crew training sessions, three simulation sessions between flight controllers and ASTP crewmen in Houston and Moscow were conducted in preparation for the flight. These were May 13, May 15, and May 19, 1975 respectively. They involved communications links between the two control centers, including voice, teletype, data fax, and, television, and fully manned control center facilities. Final simulations were conducted June 30- July 1, 1975 by the Houston and Moscow control centers and crewmen.
Beyond mission simulations tests, the Soviet Union ran a complete mission test of the Soyuz hardware modifications and ASTP docking procedures on the Soyuz 16 flight in December 1974. This ASTP manned precursor flight is discussed in more detail in an earlier section of this report.
C. ASTP DOCKING SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
The Russians refer to the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Docking System as the "androgynous peripheral docking system" or APDS. It was jointly designed by United States and Soviet engineers to provide a universal docking mechanism that could theoretically be used between any two spacecraft for future unilateral or international space endeavors. Following is the description of the APDS development, which appears in the Soviet pre-launch ASTP Press Kit: (5)
1. APDS Development
During the first meeting of the Soviet and American specialists in October 1970 both sides provided data to develop a principle structure scheme of docking system.
It was necessary to develop an active/passive system capable of docking with any spacecraft of the given type (androgynous type). The U.S. and U.S.S.R. specialists provided different schematics of docking systems. In addition, an androgynous principle was defined (the so-called principle of reverse symmetry).
The second meeting was held in June, 1971, in Houston , U.S.A. For this meeting the U.S.S.R. side had prepared a new draft of "Technical Requirements for Docking Systems". The draft was used as a basis to determine technical requirements for development of the systems.
By the meeting in the fall 1971 the both sides had prepared their own drafts for a principle structure scheme. As a result of the discussion joint features of the scheme, which were to meet the compatibility requirements were worked out. It was also agreed upon that each side would develop its own system, and these systems could differ from each other. Most of the Soviet proposals on the principle scheme had been adopted.
It was decided to provide to the U.S.S.R. and U.S. docking systems compatibility by using a common principle structure scheme and standardizing main dimensions of interacting elements when fulfilling the technical requirements for the structure. In addition, loads, temperatures and some other similar parameters were regulated.
In the course of development and fabrication [the] docking system of each country was thoroughly worked at and tested separately and jointly by each side.
First the U.S.S.R. and U.S. docking systems (D.S.) scale mock-ups were tested jointly, then their full-scale mock-ups. Development tests were performed as well as testing of docking systems, practically identical to those to be used during the mission. And at last the preflight mate check of U.S.S.R. and U.S. flight D.S. was performed. Moreover, the U.S.S.R. Docking System was installed on Soyuz 16 and thoroughly tested during the space flight. In this flight, a special ring simulated the Apollo docking ring. Main docking and undocking operations, including the functioning of latches which provide rigid connection of spacecraft were checked.
D. SPACECRAFT ATMOSPHERE AND PRESSURE DIFFERENCES
As discussed under ASTP Hardware above, the United States and Soviet Union normally maintain different spacecraft pressures and atmospheric compositions during spaceflights. Crew transfers between the 760 mm Hg/oxygen-nitrogen Soyuz atmosphere and the 260 mm Hg/pure oxygen Apollo environment would have been extremely difficult. Transfers from Soyuz to Apollo would have necessitated that the crews remain for long periods in the airlock to breathe pure oxygen to force nitrogen from their blood. The problem would have been analogous to that of deep sea divers who surface too quickly and develop "the bends." The problem was avoided by changing the Soyuz spacecraft pressure and air composition to 520 mm Hg/40% oxygen for the transfers. Tills system had been tested on the Soyuz 16 flight (ASTP manned precursor) in December 1974. It proved to be a successful development on that flight, as well as during the ASTP.
E. COMMUNICATIONS
Two kinds of potential communications problems became evident during the course of the ASTP mission preparations. One involved the spacecraft-to-ground communications, the other involved the astronaut-to-cosmonaut verbal communications across a language barrier. The first of these, (caused by a combination of low orbital altitude and limited number of available ground networks), was alleviated by using the United States Applications Technology Satellite (ATS-6) as a communications link during the flight. The second problem was solved by requiring the United States astronauts to speak Russian to the cosmonauts and the Soviet cosmonauts to speak English to the astronauts during the flight. Both solutions proved to be successful ones during the ASTP mission.
IV. POLITICAL ISSUES
Beyond its merits as a scientific and technical project, the ASTP was a highly political and somewhat controversial mission, acclaimed by some as a major contribution to U.S.-USSR detente, while as-sailed by others as an expensive waste of time. Politics affected both sides, 'both jointly and separately, alt various stages of the project development. In question were such issues as the value of the mission in relation to detente, the Soviet safety record and its effect on United States confidence, and the feasibility of future U.S.-U.S.S.R. cooperative space endeavors.
A. CONTRIBUTIONS TO DÉTENTE
The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project's political achievement in strengthening the atmosphere of detente between the United States and the Soviet Union may be judged by historians as the most significant aspect of the mission. Certainly the demonstration of meaningful cooperation between these two historically competitive powers is a positive step in this direction. Both sides demonstrated that they have considerably changed their attitudes since the early days of the so-called "space race." The competition, of course, will continue, but it is hoped that the attitudes which were formed during the preparation and implementation of the mission will provide the basis for future cooperative efforts between the United States and the Soviet Union .
B. U.S. DOUBTS——SENATOR PROXMIBE AND THE CIA
In light of several Soviet Soyuz mission failures, doubts about Soyuz hardware safety and reliability were raised by some United States critics prior to the mission. In particular, the Soviet "April 5 th Anomaly" (discussed in Chapter Three of this report) prompted United States Senator William Proxmire to call for a briefing by Central Intelligence Agency officials on Soviet space program capabilities. A closed hearing before the HUD and Independent Agencies Subcommittee of the U.S. Senate Appropriations Committee was held
June 4, 1975 . A summarization of the classified testimony of Carl Duckett, CIA deputy director for science and technology, reported that "I do not think they (the U.S.S.R.) are in good shape to handle two missions at once from the command point of view." (6)
Based upon this testimony, Senator Proxmire released a statement July 2, 1975 urging the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration to postpone the July 15 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission "until the Soviet Union brings back to Earth the Russian (Soyuz 18/Salyut 4) cosmonauts already in space." (7)
The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration responded to this statement July 2, 1975 , concluding that"... the Soyuz 18/Salvut 4 mission does not constitute a hazard to ASTP." (8)
NASA also noted that their calculations indicated a tracking overlap of the two missions would occur in only two instances, one lasting about 30 seconds, the other about 90 seconds.
The ASTP was not postponed, and the joint mission went smoothly and according to plan.
C. POST-ASTP PLANS FOB FUTURE U.S.-U. S. S. R. COOPERATION IN SPACE
It has been reported that both the United States and the Soviet Union are committed to continuing their cooperation in space beyond the ASTP. Indeed, it is felt that much of the projects justification would be lost if nothing further were planned.
At least two post-ASTP cooperative efforts have been agreed to by the two countries. The Soviet Union invited the United States to propose and furnish biology experiments which were carried aboard Kosmos 782, a Soviet biology satellite in November-December 1975. (For a more complete discussion of this flight, see Chapters Three and Four of this report.) The agreement for this experiment was negotiated at the fifth meeting of the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. working group on space biology and medicine, held from October 26 to November 4, 1974 at Tashkent . In August 1975, the Soviet Union asked the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration to provide experiments for a second biology satellite in 1977, similar to the 1975 mission.
The United States experiments carried on the 1975 mission were: Plant tumor growth experiment to study the effects of prolonged weightlessness on plant systems and to quantitatively and qualitatively measure cellular responses to G forces. Carrot slices were used as test specimens.
Carrot cell culture experiment to evaluate the effect of zero-G on plant systems 'and to determine the effects on normal embryonic tissue development. Carrot cell cultures were used in this experiment also.
Heavy particle radiation experiment , to measure the physical parameters of high charge and energy particles on board the spacecraft. Stacks of detectors were placed in each of two biological experiment packages and at four other locations 'in the spacecraft.
Killifish experiment to evaluate the effects of zero-G on vestibular systems. A graded series of killifish embryos representing key development stages were evaluated. Post-flight analysis will center on normality of vestibular functions and microscopic and physiological changes. Similar experiments with killifish were conducted during the U.S. Skylab flight land the U.S. portion of the ASTP flight.
Embryonic development of fruit flies to evaluate cosmic effects on the aging process of drosophila. This experiment was jointly prepared by scientists of the Moscow Institute of Medical and Biological Problems and the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration Ames Research Center .
In addition, the Soviet scientists invited the United States experimenters to participate in some seven other tests from the standpoint of post-flight specimen analysis. As a reciprocal gesture, the United States invited Soviet scientists to take part in its experiments.
V. SUMMARY
In summary, it may be said that the successful completion of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission was a step toward the realization of the goals set forth in the May 24,1972 agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union on cooperation in the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space. The technological cooperation between engineers and scientists and crew members afforded an opportunity for individuals really to work together on a personal level. The preparations for the joint mission were perhaps as important as the flight itself from the standpoint of developing cooperative attitudes. History will be the ultimate judge of its success or failure, but it would appear that the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project has made a significant contribution to the strengthening of detente, and laid the foundation for possible future joint efforts between the United States and the Soviet Union .
References:
(A) SOVIET SPACE PROGRAMS, 1971-75, OVERVIEW, FACILITIES AND HARDWARE MANNED AND UNMANNED FLIGHT PROGRAMS, BIOASTRONAUTICS CIVIL AND MILITARY APPLICATIONS PROJECTIONS OF FUTURE PLANS, STAFF REPORT , THE COMMITTEE ON AERONAUTICAL AND SPACE .SCIENCES, UNITED STATES SENATE, BY THE SCIENCE POLICY RESEARCH DIVISION CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, VOLUME – I, AUGUST 30, 1976, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1976,
1. ASTP FACT SHEET, NASA Release No. 74-196, PP. 13-15.
2. Apollo-Soyuz Test-Project 1975 Soviet Press Release, pp. 121-152.
3. Text of US/USSR Space Agreement. NASA NEWS Special Release, May 24, 1972 .
4. U.S. Senate Committee on Aeronautic and Space Sciences, Hearing: "Space Agreements With the Soviet Union", Washington : U.S. Government Printing Office. June 23, 1972 . p. 61-62.
5. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project—Information for the Press 1975 (Soviet prepared portion of a two-volume U.S.-Soviet publications).
6. Summary Report of CIA testimony, Remarks of Senator Proxmire, Congressional
Record, v. 121, July 14. 1975, "CIA Report on Apollo-Soyuz Mission ."
7. Press Release from the Office of U.S. Senator William Proxmire. July 2. 1975.
8. NASA Statement to Aerospace Daily, volume 74, number 3 July 3, 1975, page I8.
•Ms. Zegel Is an analyst in life sciences, Science Policy Research Division, Congressional Research Service. The Library of Congress.
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