Nuclear-Powered Merchant Ships - Rise
Marine nuclear powerplants (mainly pressurized water reactors) seem clearly technically feasible for widespread application to merchant shipping. Navy nuclear submarines and surface ships, the Russian navy's nuclear ships and icebreakers, were all propelled using a pressurized water reactor with engineering variations to suit the particular application. Only four nuclear cargo ships were built: the U.S. nuclear ship Savannah (1962-1972, 21 knots, 22 000 shp, 74 MWt reactor), the German Otto Hahn (1968-1979, 15 knots, 10 000 shp, 38 MWt reactor), the Japanese research ship Mutsu (1979-1992, 16.5 knots, 10 000 s'hp, 36 MWt reactor), and the Russian Sevmorput (1988 - still in operation, designed to carry barges or containers and being converted to the worlds first nuclear powered oil drilling vessel). The Italians planned but never built the N/S Enrico Fermi (22 000 shp, 80 MWt reactor), and the United Kingdom evaluated a variety of nuclear designs in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
In simplified terms, the difference between a nuclear-powered ship and a conventional ship is that the nuclear reactor,rather than an oil-fired boiler, produces the steam to drive the turbines. In addition to different methods of boiling water,these two propulsion systems required different designs for the storage and delivery of fuel. A conventional steamshiprequires the storage of vast and fluctuating quantities of fuel, as well as complex pumping and piping systems. A nuclear-powered ship substituted a central, internally constrained storage, delivery, and consumption system.
In January 1955 nuclear engineering signalled a mighty breakthrough with the announcement that the US Navy's submarine Nautilus was in operation and running on nuclear power. While this was of enormous significance for submarines and military planning , it was also regarded by some as a first step along the road toward fleets of merchant ships propelled by nuclear reactors. Four years later, in 1959, the N/S Savannah was launched. This was an experimental 9,400 GRT cargo liner sponsored by the US Atomic Energy Commission and the Federal Maritime Commission, which was designed to examine the feasibility of nuclear merchant ships.
The trend in the shipbuilding and the shipping industries in the 1960s was increases in size and speed to accommodate the growing trade volume. It was found economically inefficient to infinitely increase output with the existing propulsion engine. The problems of oil prices and supply spurred discussion on nuclear powered vessels on a global scale. In order to operate nuclear powered vessels for commercial purposes, nuclear powered vessels must have a competitive strength against the existing vessels. They must also be proven safe and reliable. Technological development and global safety standard, as well as navigational regulations were required to put such vessels into practical use. Considering the strength of the shipbuilding industry and the future nuclear power era, Japanese government emphasized the research and development of nuclear powered vessels. It also emphasized active participation in the standardizing safety of nuclear powered vessels to enable early realization of their commercial applications.
The possibilities of this fuel economy encouraged a number of other nations to investigate nuclear power for merchant vessels, although only Japan and West Germany went as far as the US in building experimental merchant ships. The Japanese Mutsu and West German Otto Hahn were technically successful, although the former had initial reactor troubles. Meanwhile the Soviet Union, which like the US had rapidly turned to nuclear power for larger warships and submarines, installed nuclear power plants in a number of powerful icebreakers, which were commissioned to open up the Siberian and arctic ports of that huge country.
By 1970, although much has been written and said about the development of nuclear-powered vessels for commercial use, little had been accomplished in building them. The safety problems associated with operation of nuclear-powered vessels have been identified, and experience with both the "Lenin" and the "Savannah" had shown that safety control was satisfactory. As for liability of operators, in spite of the non-ratification of the international Convention on the subject which was adopted in Brussels in 1962, it is known that the United States has made provision for this contingency along the lines of the Convention, as have Belgium and Prance, the former in 1963 and the latter in 1965.
The Federal Republic of Germany launched the "Otto Halm" in 1964 and expected to commission it in 1967 or 1968. Japan had also decided to proceed with the building of a nuclear-powered special cargo vessel of 8,300 g.r.t., with a speed of 16.5 knots, to be completed in 1971 at a cost of about $15.3 million. Furthermore, the successful operation by the USSR of the icebreaker "Lenin" since 1958, led to the announcement of that country's intention to build two more nuclear-powered icebreakers, with two reactors each instead of three as on the existing ship, and of simpler, more compact, design with still more automated features and smaller crews.
As against these positive developments must be set the hesitation of the U.S. Maritime Administration to continue its financial support of the operation of the "Savannah"; the decision not to build the 67,000-ton vessel on plans for which a joint Norwegian-Swedish team had been working since 1963, after an earlier decision not to pursue a study initiated in 1960 under the auspices of the European Nuclear Energy Agency of OECD; and the British Government's decision not to proceed at the present time with plans for building a nuclear vessel, although a study and report in 1964 the Padmore Committee had urged action towards the building of an experimental ship, and the United Kingdom and Belgium had been associated since 1963 in the study of the reactor problems involved.
By 1970, Japan was reported to be planning for a second nuclear ship, which would be a container carrier with a speed of 30 knots, though nothing came of these plans. Italy appeared likely to build the "Enrico Fermi" as an unarmed supply vessel for its Navy, in preference to a 53,000 d.w.t. tanker planned earlier. The "Fermi" was expected to be of 9,000 d.w.t., 22,000 b.h.p., with a speed of 22 knots, and cost about $5,000,000. Its crew would comprise about 26 officers, 30 N.C.Os. and 240 seamen plus ten nuclear technicians and 20 skilled workers. Nothing came of these plans.
There were clearly a number of important problems which remained to be solved before nuclear power can become a practical proposition in the shipping industry and can compete on a commercial basis with conventional power. Nevertheless, by 1970 the view was held in some quarters that nuclear power might replace conventional power in ships within the next 40 years. In spite of higher first capital costs, some consider that such vessels will be able to compete with conventional ships because of the lower cost of nuclear fuel. In any case, international study and experimental projects, sponsored both by luratcm and the European Nuclear Energy Agency continued, as were studies in the United States and other countries.
By the early 1970s several developments brought about a substantial improvement in the economic attractiveness of maritime nuclear propulsion as compared to the picture as recently as 5 years earlier. According to one analysis, "The growth in population and in the volume of world trade has brought about a parallel and dramatic growth in ship sizes and propulsion power levels. The growth will accelerate...At higher power levels, nuclear powerplants for ships become more economical. Concurrent with the increase in power levels, there has been a continued increase in the price of fossil fuels and a growing uncertainty regarding fuel availability. Meanwhile, as a consequence of the maturation of the central station nuclear electric power industry and advances in nuclear technology, the cost of nuclear fuel has decreased significantly in recent years."
A 1971 MARAD study projected that in the year 1990 there would be a need for a worldwide shipping fleet of 500 ships over 100 000 shp and 2500 ships over 40 000 shp. The MARAD economic studies indicated that nuclear power for merchant shipping was presently economically competitive with oil-fired power above 100 000 shp. They also suggested that by 1978 nuclear power can be competitive at 40 000 shp and above. Thus there seemed to be a large worldwide market potential for marine nuclear powerplants.
In 1974 the National Research Council's Maritime Transportation Research Board report Nuclear Merchant Ships was prepared by the Panel on Strategy for Developing Nuclear-Powered Merchant Ships. This study recommended a strategy for developing U.S.-flag nuclear-powered merchant ships. It identified and discussed key problem areas, including comparative economics, safety and environmental quality considerations, and finincial incentives and options.
Nuclear Merchant Ships - Fall
Attempts have been made in the past to development nuclear merchant ships, but these projects have failed for technical, economic, or political reasons. The U.S.-built NS Savannah and the German-built Otto Hahn were decommissioned because they were too expensive to operate, partly due to safety concerns and insurance issues involving the use of nuclear power in civilian ports. The Japanese Mutsu was dogged by technical and political problems.
It was essential to establish the marine plant with excellent safety and reliability which is capable of competing with the conventional ships in economy, and being accepted by the people and the international society in order to be prepared for the practical application of the future nuclear powered ship. For this purpose, it is important not only the demonstration by the model or test device to simulate the actual condition, but also the establishment of various environment necessary for the operation of the nuclear powered ship such as the establishment of the safety standards which are operationally and internationally common as the ship.
Development of operation support system such as automatic operating system and anomaly diagnosis systems of nuclear reactor is very important in practical nuclear ship because of a limited number of operators and severe conditions in which receiving support from others in a case of accident is very difficult. The goal of development of the operation support systems is to realize the perfect automatic control system in a series of normal operation from the reactor start-up to the shutdown.
By 1980 some shipbuilding authorities and ship fleet owners were predicting that nuclear powered merchant ships will be sailing the high seas before the end of the century. In that only a few private shipyards in the United States have had the opportunity to construct and repair nuclear powered ships, the other private shipyards must be made aware of what is involved if they are to meet the challenge of nuclear shipwork. If the builder of a nuclear powered merchant ship is acting as the agent for the prospective shipowner-operator and is responsible for the entire design and construction of the ship, he would need designers who are knowledgeable of nuclear ship construction and highly skilled craftsmen. He would also need an enlarged workforce that would possibly include a legal staff, extra security guards and clerical help and other support personnel plus special tools for the nuclear work. If, on the other hand, the ship's nuclear system is the entire responsibility of a vendor, the shipbuilder's needs could be less, possibly about the same as that needed for conventional shipwork.
A detailed and comprehensive Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant Ships was adopted by the IMO (International Maritime Organization) Assembly in 1981. The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) [the SOLAS Convention] in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most important of all international treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships. The 1974 Convention has been updated and amended on numerous occasions. Chapter VIII "Nuclear ships" gives basic requirements for nuclear-powered ships and is particularly concerned with radiation hazards. It refers to the detailed and comprehensive Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant Ships which was adopted by the IMO Assembly in 1981.
Chapter VIII is supplemented by the Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant Ships and the Safety Recommendations on the Use of Ports by Nuclear Merchant Ships. In view of the risk posed by nuclear merchant ships, SOLAS regulation VIII/11 introduces special control measures. In addition to the general powers of control conferred upon port States by regulation I/19, regulation VIII/11 provides that nuclear ships "shall be subject to special control before entering the ports and in the ports of Contracting Governments, directed towards verifying that there is on board a valid Nuclear Ship Safety Certificate and that there are no unreasonable radiation or other hazards at sea or in port, to the crew, passengers or public, or to the waterways or food or water resources". Accordingly, port States are authorized to enforce control measures in respect of foreign vessels in innocent passage through the territorial sea provided these vessels have clearly shown their intention to enter port.
The marine reactor as a main engine for general merchant ships is difficult to be used due to limitation of the port of cal1. However it is expected to greatly contribute to the advanced marine transportation, ocean development, etc. when the base for putting the reactor into practice is prepared. The design, evaluation and research of the improved marine reactor which is more miniature and lightweight and highly safe compared with the existing design are continuously conducted in Japan since 1983 in order to obtain the concept of the reactor which is suitable to the required perform-ance and limitation condition corresponding to use of the future rnarine reactor.
Nuclear power may have proved enormously effective for warships, requiring refuelling only once at the mid-life of a submarine or aircraft carrier, but experience with the experimental merchant ships failed to demonstrate that such vessels could be commercially viable. First costs were very high, in comparison with a diesel-driven or steam turbine propelled vessel. The importance of nuclear safety was clearly enormous, and the costs of nuclear trained specialist engineers were found to be prohibitive. Perhaps as important were the reactions from many members of the public, who were understandably nervous at the prospect of nuclear-powered merchant ships entering their ports.
The Japanese nuclear ship Mutsu was blockaded by her country's fishermen, and she was eventually demolished. Otto Hahn was re-engined to become a containership, and Savannah, her reactor removed, went into long-term layup.
Nuclear-Powered Merchant Ships - Rebirth??
The IMO (International Maritime Organization) member countries are discussing about the prevention of air pollution from ships to inc1ude some new Annex on MARPOL convention. The air pollution from ships includes three categories as SO2, NOx and CO2emissions. The SO2 and NOx problems are essential1y localized near-shore problems, because, in far from the shoreline, those pollutants are falling down with rain on the sea surface and soluble within bulk sea water. On the other hand, CO2 is connected to the global warming problem.
Early in 2007, Lloyd's Register began research into the implications of nuclear propulsion for merchant ships. By 2009 Lloyd's Register announced a research program revisiting the technical challenges of nuclear propulsion for tankers, bulk carriers, container ships and cruise ships, as well as refueling and waste-disposal issues. Lloyd's Register commenced an internal research program directed towards the implications arising from the nuclear propulsion of merchant ships. This work built on the extensive and ongoing experience of Lloyd's Register in the land based nuclear industries.
Utilizing nuclear power for liquefied natural gas (LNG) vessels would provide a number of benefits, including low emissions, as the nuclear plant aboard an LNG vessel would eliminate carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide and sulfur oxide emissions, a recent study has found. In its 2010 study, Babcock International Group's Marine Division sought to determine the commercial feasibility of utilizing nuclear power for the main propulsion and auxiliary power generation on board an LNG carrier.
Nuclear powered commercial marine vessels could reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but the commercial application of this technology is complicated. As of 2010 there were 150 nuclear powered vessels operating globally; this vessel population is composed of military vessels (e.g., submarines and aircraft carriers), and a few government agency icebreakers. The US Department of Transportation's April 2010 report to Congress, Transportations Role in Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Volume 2 concluded that "Current concerns regarding national security (e.g., piracy and terrorism), complex maintenance issues (e.g., refueling, preventive and scheduled maintenance activities), and longer-term issues concerning disposal of spent rods and decommissioning of vessel reactors, make this technological option more complicated to implement then other technologies presented in this study. For these reasons, this report evaluates implementation only of nonnuclear technologies."
On 15 November 2010 it was announced that the BMT Group Ltd., specialists in maritime design, engineering and risk management, and Lloyd's Register's Technical Committee, were joining with Greek bulk tanker and container ship operators Enterprises Shipping and Trading S.A. and US based atomic energy experts Hyperion Power in a bid to investigate the practicability of small modular nuclear reactors as the power plants for freight vessels of the future.
Hyperion Power Generation Inc. is a privately held company formed to commercialize a small modular nuclear reactor [SMR] designed by Los Alamos National Laboratory ("LANL") scientists leveraging forty years of technological advancement. The reactor, known as the Hyperion Power Module ("HPM"), designed "to fill a previously unmet need for a transportable power source that is safe, clean, sustainable, and cost-efficient." Liquid Metal-Cooled small modular reactors such as the Hyperion Power Module (HPM), do not require a pressure vessel because the lead-bismuth [PbBi] coolant operates at ambient pressure. Light water reactors (LWRs) operate under high pressure and have a variety of extra safety components to consider because of this.
The agreement for the joint industry project was signed today at the offices of Enterprises Shipping and Trading in Athens, Greece. Enterprises' Victor Restis, commenting at the signing said, "Despite the fact that shipping is the industry that contributes much less in the World's atmospheric pollution compared to other shore based industries, we believe that no effort is enough towards safeguarding a better world for the future generations. We are extremely honored and proud to be part of this consortium at this historic event as we strongly believe that alternative power generation is the answer for the shipping transportation."
The consortium believes that SMRs, with a thermal power output of more than 68 megawatts, have the potential to be used as a plug-in nuclear 'battery'. The research is intended to produce a concept tanker-ship design based on conventional and 'modular' concepts. Special attention will be paid to analysis of a vessel's lifecycle cost as well as to hull-form designs and structural layout, including grounding and collision protection. "This a very exciting project," said Lloyd's Register CEO, Richard Sadler. "We believe that as society recognises the limited choices available in the low carbon, oil scarce economy and land based nuclear plants become common place we will see nuclear ships on specific trade routes sooner than many currently anticipate."
Heavy liquid metals considered for both terrestrial and space reactors include mercury, bismuth, lead, tin, and lead-bismuth [PbBi] eutectics. Lead-Bismuth (PbBi) forms a eutectic at 55.5 wt. % Bi and 45.5 wt. % Pb. The creation of the PbBi eutectic reduces the melting points from 327°C and 271°C for lead and bismuth respectively to 123.5°C. Heavy metal-coolants are not fire or chemical explosive hazards, and exhibit very low vapor pressures. The low vapor pressure of heavy metal coolants provides the safety advantages ofpreventing loss of coolant accidents due to rapid coolant evaporation, and precludingexplosive release of a high-pressure coolant. Furthermore, heavy metal cooled reactors have negative void coefficients of reactivity. The thermal mechanical propertiesof PbBi provide for a large operating temperature range (melts at 123.5°C and boils at 1670°) so that guarding against boiling is easy. The boiling point of PbBi is 167°C so there is a largeoperating temperture range and boiling is unlikely. In addition, PbBi is chemically inert so someaccident concerns are reduced.
Of course, as with any option, there are some undesirable features of PbBi. The three primary concerns are its corrosiveness, its radioactivity after irradiation and its toxicity. PbBi candissolve steels and can be contaminated by solid admixtures due to interactions with construction materials. This corrosive concern has been handled in Russia by the development of appropriate materials and the use of oxygen control to allow a protective oxide coat to form for protection ofthe materials. The oxygen control is sensitive since both too much oxygen and too little oxygen can cause problems. The Russians have, through experience, solved this problem for use insubmarine reactors but these systems did not have spallation products in the coolant.
A major disadvantage of PbBi coolants is the activation product 210Po resulting from an n,/ reaction with 209Bi and subsequent beta-decay to 210Po. Polonium-210 is very toxic and difficult to contain. Bismuth plus a neutron creates 210Po with a half-life of 138 days. This half life is short enough that it is not a waste concern but it is an operational concern. Fortunately, 210Po stays in the PbBi coolant as PbPo which self shields the 210Po. In addition, Lead and Bismuth are both heavy metal poisons which will require adequate separation from the environment. When irradiated, they represent a "mixed" waste which further complicates disposal.
Nonetheless, the former Soviet Union developed and used PbBi-cooled reactors in the Russian nuclear-powered submarine program. Russia built and operated 7 "Alpha Class" Submarines (~70-140 Mwe), built 2 on shore prototypes, with a total of 80 reactor-years experience. The United States has little experience with heavy metal reactor coolants. Cooperation with Russian developers could be important if heavy metal cooled reactors are pursued.
http://korabley.net/news/sovetskij_arkticheskij_likhterovoz_sevmorput/2010-01-25-464
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For Immediate Release Press Contact: Deborah Deal-Blackwell, APR Phone: Email: |
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Shipping and power experts join forces to explore the potential for nuclear power to propel future generations of commercial tankers Members of new research consortium, which includes Lloyd's Register, Enterprises Shipping and Trading, Hyperion Power Generation and BMT, to examine the marine applications for small modular reactors (SMRs) 15 November 2010—A consortium of British, American and Greek interests have agreed to investigate the practical maritime applications for small modular reactors as commercial tanker-owners search for new designs that could deliver safer, cleaner and commercially viable forms of propulsion for the global fleet. The Strategic Research Group at Lloyd's Register, Hyperion Power Generation Inc, British designer BMT Nigel Gee and Greek ship operator Enterprises Shipping and Trading SA are to lead the research into nuclear propulsion, which they believe is technically feasible and has the potential to drastically reduce the CO2 emissions caused by commercial shipping. "This a very exciting project," said Lloyd's Register CEO, Richard Sadler. "We believe that as society recognises the limited choices available in the low carbon, oil scarce economy and land based nuclear plants become common place we will see nuclear ships on specific trade routes sooner than many currently anticipate." The agreement for the joint industry project was signed today at the offices of Enterprises Shipping and Trading in Athens, Greece. Enterprises' Victor Restis, commenting at the signing said, "Despite the fact that shipping is the industry that contributes much less in the World's atmospheric pollution compared to other shore based industries, we believe that no effort is enough towards safeguarding a better world for the future generations. We are extremely honored and proud to be part of this consortium at this historic event as we strongly believe that alternative power generation is the answer for the shipping transportation." The consortium believes that SMRs, with a thermal power output of more than 68 megawatts, have the potential to be used as a plug-in nuclear 'battery'. The research is intended to produce a concept tanker-ship design based on conventional and 'modular' concepts. Special attention will be paid to analysis of a vessel's lifecycle cost as well as to hull-form designs and structural layout, including grounding and collision protection. "We are enthusiastic about participating in the historic opportunity presented by this truly groundbreaking consortium," said John R. 'Grizz' Deal, the CEO of Hyperion Power. "In addition to fitting the basic requirements as the model for studying the application of SMRs in commercial naval propulsion, the Hyperion Power Module [HPM] can also help to set new nuclear maritime standards. The HPM's design includes a non-pressurised vessel, and non-reactive coolant. These features, among others in the HPM, should encourage the industry to strive for even higher levels of inherent safety in their models." International shipping has been identified as a significant global contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, and it is under mounting pressure to contribute to overall emission reductions. There is an ongoing debate about how much the sector will be able to reduce those emissions, while continuing to support the forecast expansion in world trade that it enables. "Nuclear propulsion offers the opportunity for an emissions-free alternative to fossil fuel, whist delivering ancillary benefits and security to the maritime industry," said Dr Phil Thompson, Sector Director -- Transport, for the BMT Group. "We look forward to using our wide range of maritime skills and expertise to identify the through-life implications, risks and potential for developing and using SMRs in the civilian maritime environment and to provide a framework for its safe and reliable introduction and utilisation." Consortium Hyperion Power Generation Inc. (USA) Lloyd's Register (UK) BMT Nigel Gee (UK) Enterprises Shipping and Trading SA (Greece) For media enquiries contact:
Celebrating 250 years of service In 1760, 11 men met in Edward Lloyd's coffee house to talk about publishing a list of ships, a register to define their quality and safeguard life and property carried on them. In the years since then we have applied our expertise across the energy and transportation sectors, helping to make the world a safer place. In 2010 we are celebrating 250 years of service and quality and we are looking forward to the new challenges the future brings. Lloyd's Register 71 Fenchurch Street, London EC3M 4BS, UK T +44 (0)20 7709 9166 F +44 (0)20 7488 4796 E news@lr.org www.lr.org Services are provided by members of the Lloyd's Register Group. For further information see www.lr.org/entities. View PDF File Hyperion Power Generation Press Contact: Claire Gimble |
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