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Further Reading

Spain - Defense Industry

By 2010 the main Spanish defense suppliers (Navantia, Indra, GDSBS and EADS-Airbus Military) were doing well internationally. They excel in military airlifters and tankers, specialist ships, combat land vehicles, and C4I systems. Being part of their supply chains may open up a wide export potential across the world.

The Spanish defence industry accounted for some 850 companies in 2010, generating over 18,000 direct jobs and a joint turnover of €3.6 billion, 40% of which is exports. The four leaders of the local industry (shipbuilder Navantia, land systems’ manufacturer GDSBS, aerospace giant EADS and Spain’s IT champion Indra) account for nearly 80% of the sector turnover, though some 50 companies are considered large in terms of employees.

The Madrid-headquartered military transport aircraft division of EADS (Airbus Military) manufactures a comprehensive family of airlifters, with over 1,000 aircraft sold to 130 customers who require tactical and strategic transport as well as flight refuelling capabilities and maritime surveillance. AM leads on the A400M programme as well as for the military tanker transport (MRTT) derivative of the A330 and other civil airbus platforms, plus the light and medium-sized military transport aircraft variants of the C-295, CN-235 and C212. While Spain helds a 5.5% stake in EADS, the contribution of its national industry in the new programmes is increasing: it accounts for 7.9% of the A380 program, and for 11% of the new A350XWB. Spain is a global leader on carbon fiber components. The largest single piece of composite material ever built (ie. the 14-meter-long A380’s HTP) is manufactured in Illescas, Toledo.

In the 1990s the Spanish defense industry was in a period of contraction and reorganization similar to the United States, thus limiting the number and size of immediate opportunities to sell U.S. defense equipment. However, Spanish interest in and respect for American-made defense items remained high. US firms considered this hiatus as an opportunity to lay the groundwork for potential sales in the future, when the Spanish budgetary situation improves and military requirements are clearer.

In the 1990s, the Spanish defense industry underwent profound transformations. These changes not only generated a new industrial panorama but also created new relationships between governments and industries. There were many opportunities arising from both public and private sector projects in which Spanish firms would welcome partnerships with U.S. high-technology defense companies. For example, Spain’s heavy investment in infrastructure projects presented major opportunities for U.S. defense electronics manufacturers. In the past, public firms dominated the defense sector, but, with the Spanish government having promoted privatization, private firms now have the upper hand.

In 1999, after four years of significant growth of Spanish defense materiel exports, industrial sales dropped 2 percent, to $150 million. The growth of Spanish defense imports dropped 6.3 percent, to $407 million. Despite the decrease in the volume of Spanish exports and imports, concern is minimal considering that the numbers are superior to those registered during the crisis that negatively affected this sector in the first half of the 1990s.

Coproduction of defense systems was a feature found in some of the offset agreements with Spain. These agreements specified the particular products that would be procured from Spain’s defense industry as part ofthe offset program. The offset percentage required in these agreements ranged from less than 30 percent to over 100 percent. The German company Krauss-Maffei agreed to coproduce tanks in Spain to offset Spain’s purchase of 200 Leopard 2 main battle tanks.

Spain uses offsets on defense orders to support and develop its defense industry. Although Spain does not have written offset guidelines, it does have a policy of demanding offsets, including coproduction by designated Spanish firms, technology transfer, and export of Spanish defense products. Spain’s standard offset requirement is 100 percent; however, the agreements over the 10 years 1985-1995 ranged from 30 percent to 100 percent of the value of the weapon system.

Spain does not have astated threshold amount for requiring offsets, but all of the offset agreements over the decade 1985-1995 were for weapons sales over $7 million [that is, about 1,000,000,000 ESP]. In some agreements, Spain included provisions to only credit offset projects that create new business or represent an increase in existing business, and not grant credit for companies’ current business in the country. In addition, Spain sometimes included a local content requirement for offset projects, providing credit only for the portion of the projects that are produced in Spain. Companies reported that to get approvalfor offset projects, the work usually had to be spread across various Spanish regions, even though the agreements did not explicitly contain this requirement. In addition, Spain had targeted specific Spanish companies that it wanted to get offset work.

Meeting Spain’s offset demands was difficult because its defense industry is not as advanced as other Western industrialized countries. Some US companies said offsets were relatively easy to implement in Spain because Spain’s participation has consisted of producing less sophisticated components. Another company observed that offsets were more difficult to implement in Spain than in other European countries because of Spain’s less diverse industrial base.

Spain’s Aerospace Industry

Spain’s aerospace sector is a $6.1 billion industry with excellent opportunities for U.S. exporters. Looking at specific sectors, 63 percent of sales can be attributed to systems and frames, 13 percent to engines, 12 percent to equipment, and 12 percent to space. Spain’s most important aerospace companies are world leaders in the manufacture of small and medium-sized aircraft and aircraft gas-turbine engines and flight simulators, as well as in aircraft and engine maintenance.

In 2007, the aerospace industry’s revenue increased by 5.4 percent compared to the previous year. Employment grew by 11.8 percent as well: in 2007, the sector employed more than 34,000 people. The aerospace industry currently dedicates 14.4 percent of sales to R&D (civil and military use are almost equal). Sales to end-users fell to $1.8 billion.

The international nature of all work on both military and civil projects can be seen from the fact that 70 percent of all activity was for export, a figure similar to that of the previous year, though some of these exports were generated by public purchases (A400M, A380, Frigates, etc.) and commitments deriving from them. The Spanish aerospace industry achieved a surplus of $3.2 million in 2007.

Spain’s aerospace industry is primarily located in Madrid, Andalusia, and the Basque Country. Aerospace imports (under import code HS 88) totaled $1.1 billion in 2007, with a U.S. import market share of 29 percent. In 2007, Spain’s aerospace industry revenues totaled $6.1 billion, 34 percent of this figure earned in the military sector of the aerospace market. According to ATECMA, the association of Spanish airline industries, some $879 million, 14.4 percent of total revenues, was spent on research and development in 2007.

The Spanish aerospace industry employs more than 34,000 people. The largest aerospace companies are Airbus Military, formerly known as EADS CASA (part of the European Airbus consortium), AERNNOVA (formerly GAMESA AERONAUTICA), INDRA, and INDUSTRIA DE TURBO PROPULSORES (ITP). These companies conduct R&D, design, production, sales and maintenance on a variety of aircraft and their parts, spacecraft and electronic simulation systems.

Based on its long experience in the design, manufacture and certification of complete aeronautical structures, EADS CASA carried out in 2006 a large number of deliveries, outstanding among them being the horizontal tail plane of the Falcon F7X. This year saw the completion of the certification documentation of the horizontal tail plane of this aircraft and the certification fatigue tests were concluded.

Within the closed price contract signed with EADS CASA for the design of the central casing, trailing edge, elevator, tip and central fastener of the horizontal tail plane of the Falcon F7X, CT INGENIEROS (a subcontractor of EADS CASA(http://www.ctingenieros.es/) passed the first flight milestone and delivered all the calculation documentation and the modifications that took place up to this phase of the program, now very close to certification.

For the Airbus Military A400M program, the consortium of engine constructors, Europrop International Gmbh (EPI), composed of ITP, Rolls Royce, Snecma and MTU was selected by Airbus Military, in competition with Pratt & Whitney Canada, for propulsion of the A400M European transport aircraft. The A400M will replace Europe’s ageing military transport fleet and will become the main competitor to Lockheed Martin’s C130 Hercules.

Prospects were promising for EADS CASA. In recent years, the company has secured important contracts, ranging from R&D to aircraft construction and modernization. EADS CASA oversees the activities of the División de Aviones de Transporte Militar (MTA) and Defensa y Seguridad (DS), two distinct sections within the company. The MTA designs, produces, and markets medium-sized and smaller airplanes for cargo purposes. Currently, the MTA is working on the Deepwater Project for the U.S. Coast Guard. One of the MTA’s biggest projects involves the production of in-flight-refueling planes. The other arm of EADS CASA, DS, is divided into three categories: Defense Electronics (DE), Military Air Systems (MAS), and Defense and Communications Systems (DCS). MAS is involved in production of combat aircraft and flight simulators. It is most well known for its role in the production of the Eurofighter jet.

The aerospace industry can be divided into three general industrial sectors: aircraft and systems engines, and equipment. Aircraft manufacturing is the dominant activity in the sector. Aerospace production in Spain is a small but highly developed and mature industrial sector. Heavy investment in the A -380 program has strengthened the aeronautical infrastructure and will increase Spain’s production capabilities in the future.

The A400M program will further strengthen the importance of Andalusia (in the south of Spain) as one of the country’s main aerospace-production regions. The all-new A400M military aircraft made its first flight from Andalusia’s Seville San Pablo Airport after its assembly at the EADS CASA factory, the third largest Airbus production plant in the world. The Ministry of Science and Technology estimates the project will create 10,000 new jobs in Spain.

In the military aircraft sector, Spain’s participation in the Typhoon Eurofighter is 14 percent. This program has led to the development of important new technologies by EADS CASA, CESA, INDRA and ITP. These programs, along with continued success in the aircraft engine and aircraft systems and simulators markets, underline Spain’s important participation in the world aerospace sector.

EADS Construcciones Aeronauticas Sociedad Anónima (CASA)

EADS Construcciones Aeronauticas Sociedad Anónima (CASA) is Spain’s largest aerospace company and is part of the European consortium EADS. Created through the merger of Aerospatiale Matra, CASA and Daimler Chrysler Aerospace, EADS is the third largest aerospace manufacturer in the world. CASA’s activities are in three categories: military transport aircraft (such as C-212, CN-235, C-295 and C-101), aeronautics, and space (Hispasat satellites). EADS CASA has industrial centers throughout Spain and in eight other countries, including the United States. The company exports to more than 50 countries, and is a world leader in light and medium-sized military transport aircraft.

EADS North America has selected a site in Arkansas that is now the center of industrial activity for the KC-330, which EADS North America is offering to the U.S. Air Force as a replacement for the KC-135 refueling fleet. The facility began operations in 2006 with the establishment of an aircraft-engineering center. EADS North America initiated the KC-3304 industrial site selection process with a Request for Information (RFI) to all 50 U.S. states in January 2005. More than 70 candidate locations from 32 states responded to the RFI.

EADS’ Military Transport Aircraft Division (MTA) designs, manufactures and commercializes light and mediumsized transport aircraft, all with different versions. It is responsible for the CASA Fully Integrated Tactical System (FITS) which is used onboard coast guard aircraft for tactical marine reconnaissance, transformation of the Airbus military derivatives, avionics overhauls of transport aircraft and for development and manufacture of aero structures.

EADS CASA is the world leader in the light and medium-sized military transport aircraft market with the CASA C-212, CASA CN-235 and the CASA C-295. More than 100 operators around the world are flying more than 700 of these aircraft. EADS CASA is the only manufacturer covering the 3-to-9 ton market. Final assembly of all these aircraft is at the San Pablo facilities in Seville.

The Spanish Air Force was the first to employ the new CASA C-295, while the Polish Air Force has just ordered eight more of this aircraft to add to its fleet. In addition, the United Arab Emirates Navy selected the CASA C-295 ASW with the CASA FITS mission system for its maritime patrol aircraft program.

EADS has majority participation in the future A400M large military-transport aircraft. It has been designed to meet the needs of the eight European countries that contributed to the project and that have ordered a total of 196 units. The A400M is the most modern and competitive of the solutions for European tactical transport, logistical, humanitarian and peacekeeping needs. It will replace the C-130 Hercules and C-160 Transall aircraft currently in operation. Manufacturing and management of this program is handled by Airbus Military. The Military Transport Aircraft Division of EADS will manufacture the horizontal stabilizer and engine nacelles and do final assembly of all the aircraft at the San Pablo facilities in Seville.

MTA is responsible for the transformation of Airbus A310-300 and A330-200 platforms into the Combi/Cargo/Passenger configuration and into the Multi-Role Tanker Transport (MRTT). The Spanish Air Force purchased two VIP versions of the aircraft.

With four other companies, the Military Transport Aircraft Division is also part of the joint Air Tanker Project to offer the British Future Strategic Tanker Aircraft (FSTA). Addressing a new policy on defense purchases, the FSTA is designed to replace the existing tankers flown by the Royal Air Force with wide-ranging air transport services and in-flight-refueling solutions provided by industry.

CASA is seeking U.S. firms involved in the following technology processes: avionics equipment, viper fiber placement systems, CNC (computerized numerical control) specialized machinery and software, contour tape-laying heads for composite tape-laying machines, spare parts and components, landing gear, engine and airframe parts for the F5, F18, P3 and C130 that CASA delivers to the Spanish Armed Forces, as well as other equipment related to composites.

http://www.eurocopter.com/site/en/ref/home.html

EADS Eurocopter Group

In 1992, Aérospatiale joined with the German helicopter firm MBB to create Eurocopter Holdings. Both companies were already participating in the four-nation NH.90 helicopter project, along with the Italian firm Agusta and the German firm Fokker. The NH.90 was developed as a multi-purpose helicopter capable of serving as a troop transport, and in anti-submarine and anti-shipping roles.

The end of the Cold War and the diminished demand for military helicopters are the primary reasons that many European firms are forming consortia to build their new helicopters, and this trend shows no signs of changing. The Eurocopter group is now a 100-percent-owned subsidiary of EADS (European Aeronautic, Defense and Space Company). The decision of the Ministry of Defense to purchase Tiger Helicopter has firmly established Eurocopter España as the third pillar of the company in Europe.

Rotorcraft are produced in most industrialized countries, either of indigenous design or in collaboration with, or under license from, other manufacturers. US manufacturers of civilian helicopters include Bell, Enstrom, Kaman, MD Helicopters, Robinson, Schweizer, and Sikorsky. However, Bell moved its civilian helicopter production to Canada, with the last U.S. product completed in 1993. European producers include AgustaWestland, Eurocopter, NH Industries, and PZL Swidnik.

Eurocopter has made significant market inroads in recent years, particularly in North America. Meanwhile, Enstrom, Eurocopter, MD Helicopters, Schweizer, and Sikorsky all have formed or aresetting up joint ventures with China‘s industry in a trend that will only grow in the years ahead.

By a process of successive integrations, Eurocopter has become Europe's leading fully-integrated aeronautical group and is, at present, composed of three entities: the parent company, Eurocopter, the German subsidiary, Eurocopter Deutschland; and the Spanich subsidiary, Eurocopter España. This ultimate configuration has enabled the group to have unified command structures, while at the same time respecting the national identities of the partner nations.

http://www.aernnova.com/user/en/news.php?id=86

Grupo Aernnova SA

Spain's aerospace sector is constantly growing, and shows greater potential due to increased competition in the Spanish air transport market and demand for new technology. Liberalization of Spain's internal air transport system has resulted in increased interest for these new technologies, creating opportunities for U.S. manufacturers and distributors. The largest local company, EADS-CASA, has a minority participation in the European consortium Airbus. The Spanish government is trying to increase its participation to 10 percent. In addition to EADS-CASA, there are two other dominant companies in Spain: Aernova, formerly GAMESA, a manufacturer of structural parts for aircraft, and ITP (Industria de Turbo Propulsores, S.A.), an aircraft engine producer.

In 2006 Gamesa Aeronautica was boubht out by Consortium led by Caja Castilla La Mancha Corporation. Aernnova is formerly the aeronautical division of Grupo Gamesa Corporacion Tecnologica. The company dates back to 1986, when it was called Fibertecnic. Gamesa Aeronautic was formed in 1993. Aernnova - a private firm owned by Synergy Industry and Technology S.A. - spun out of Gamesa in April 2006. It is not to be confused with Aeronova S.L., which is a different Spanish aerospace company. Aernnova has been expanding quickly. It had 2,640 employees in 2005 and 2,898 in 2006. Of the 258 people added that year, 140 were in engineering, according to the company's 2006 annual report.

AERNNOVA (formerly GAMESA AERONAUTICA) activities involve all areas from conceptual design to testing, certification, production, and product support of large aero structures and aircraft interior components, both in light alloy and composite materials. AERNNOVA of Vitoria, Spain, is collaborating with BOEING in its team design of the structure of the 747 Large Cargo Freighter, a specially modified 747-400 passenger jet that will transport major assemblies for the new Boeing 787 Dreamliner. AERNNOVA is heavily involved in the Sikorsky S-92 High- Capacity Helicopter, including design, certification and manufacturing of the turbine support structure, firewalls, upper structure and transition section of the fuselage, tail cone and horizontal stabilizer, and the interior. AERNNOVA is the partner responsible for supplying a fully equipped empennage for the CRJ 700/900 family, and responsible for design and manufacturing of the equipped empennage and fuselage rear section for ERJ 170/175/190/195.

AERNNOVA is interested in U.S. firms that specialize in areas unrelated to AERNNOVA’s areas of expertise, including avionics equipment, CNC (computerized numerical control) specialized machinery and software, aviation fuel, and pre-assembled parts (especially transmission parts for the S-92).

ITP - Industria de Turbo Propulsores, S.A.

ITP is one of the most important companies in the Spanish aerospace sector. Created in 1989, ITP’s shareholders consist of private and public Spanish entities (53 percent participation) and Rolls Royce PLC (46 percent participation). ITP is present mainly in the aircraft gas-turbine engine industry, where it is involved in R&D, design and maintenance. In 2007, ITP’s sales exceeded $616 million, a 1.1 percent jump from the previous year.10 Prior to 1990, ITP’s main engine maintenance facility in Ajalvir (Madrid) belonged to EADS CASA, and is therefore highly experienced in engine repair and overhaul.

Since 1959, this facility has catered to the needs of U.S. clients such as General Electric, Honeywell Garrett and Pratt & Whitney, and has completed several engine maintenance contracts for the U.S. military in Europe. ITP is one of the main developers of the EJ200 engine for the Eurofighter Typhoon.

The low-pressure turbine is one of ITP’s main products, and where it has centered most of its investments in recent years. ITP holds 8.1 percent of the world’s portfolio of these subsystems for large reactor engines via its participation in the Trent 500, in its final stages of launch, and the Trent 900, which drives the Airbus 380. The Trent 900 made its maiden long-distance flight in 2005 and began service in 2006. ITP has development programs for each of the following engines: the turboprop TP400 with its 10.000CV (through the European Europrop International Consortium) and the Turboshaft MTRI 390 with its 1000CV (for the consortium MTRI, which will drive the Tiger helicopter in its improved version). Both shared the same delivery date for the first production engines in 2008.

ITP is highly interested in developing partnerships with U.S. firms in maintenance of gas turbines and is currently seeking U.S. firms specializing in avionics equipment, communication systems, aviation fuel suppliers, testing systems and pre-assembled parts.

ITP’s main Engine Engineering and Manufacture programs include:

• EJ200 (Eurojet) for the TYPHOON
• Trent 1000 (Rolls-Royce) for 7E7
• Trent 900 (Rolls-Royce) for Airbus 380
• Trent 800 (Rolls-Royce) Boeing 777
• Trent 700 (Rolls-Royce) Airbus 330
• Trent 500 (Rolls-Royce) for Airbus 340-600 y 500
• Atar Plus (Snecma) for Mirage
• BR 710 (Rolls-Royce Deutschland) for Global Express GV and others
• BR 715 (Rolls-Royce Deutschland) for Boeing 717
• TF 50 (Vericor Power Systems) industrial and marine engine
• Allison 601, (Rolls Royce North America) industrial engine
• Tobera Vectorial (ITP) for the Eurofighter Typhoon
• TP400 (EPI) Airbus A400M
• AS907 (Honeywell) for Bombardier
• F135 (Pratt & Whitney) for F35 Joint Strike Fighter
• MTR390-E (EADS-EUROCOPTER) for Tiger helicopter

In contrast with the leading defense producing states of Europe, Spain's industry was quite small, with 240 suppliers, 37,744 employees, and a turnover in 1987 of 228 billion pesetas ($1.8 billion). Spain's defense industry had a large public-sector component, with 52 percent of defense equipment spending going to public-sector companies in 1987, 35 percent to private enterprise, and 13 percent for imports (by1989, imports were around 18 percent). The main sectors are arma-ments and ammunition (28 percent of turnover), naval (20.2 percent),electronics (18.8 percent) and aerospace (13 percent). In 1990, Spain's defense budget was 870 billion pesetas ($7.3 billion),36 percent (310 billion pesetas, or $2.6 billion) of which went forequipment (including R&D), fifth largest in NATO Europe.'20It isexpected to decline by 20 percent in 1991. 121R&D spending by the government has increased dramatically in thelast five years, from 2 billion pesetas ($16 million) in 1985 to 40 bil-lion pesetas ($320 million) in 1990 (down slightly from 1989). A ma-jor portion of the R&D spending (some 18 billion pesetas, or $150million in 1989) is attributable to EFA.Spain's Direcci6n General de Armamento y Material (DGAM) hopesto develop the Spanish defense industrial base by coordinating thearmed services' demand and promoting collaborative programs to giveSpanish industry access to foreign technology. Much of this effortcenters around the two major aircraft projects: the 1983 agreementto acquire 72 U.S. F-18s, which has generated almost $1.2 billion inoffsets, one-third of which has been in defense and Spain's 13 percentshare of EFA.Spain's defense industry is organized around four components ofthe state-owned National Industrial Institute (INI): Construcci6nesAeronauticas S.A. (CASA), aircraft; Empresa Nacional Bazan deConstrucci6nes Novales Militares, shipbuilding; Santa Barbara, ordnance; and INISEL, electronics. There are two important privatefirms: Union Espahiola de Explosivos (a division of Rio TintoExplosives), and CESELSA (electronics) Spanish industry manufactured a significant share of the material requirements of the armed forces, notably light arms, vehicles, ships, and light transport aircraft. As a member of NATO, Spain had joined in the planning of several coproduction projects with other West European countries. Nearly 150 firms were engaged principally in defense production, and about 4,000 Spanish firms were linked in some way with the industry. Four large munitions manufacturers were directly controlled by the Ministry of Defense. A number of other major firms were part of the state holding company, the National Industrial Institute (Instituto Nacional de Industria--INI). A large group of purely private companies formed a third category. The ultimate intention of the Ministry of Defense was to transfer the four arms factories to the INI. According to a 1986 survey of firms doing business with the Ministry of Defense, the manufacture of electronics accounted for about 20 percent of Spanish defense production; military vehicles for about 14 percent, supply of arms for approximately 13.0 percent, naval construction for about 8.0 percent, and aircraft construction for approximately 6.0 percent. Production of components and ancillary equipment made up the remaining approximately 39 percent. Among the leading producers of army equipment was Empresa Nacional de Autocamiones S.A. (ENASA), generally known by the trade name of Pegaso, which manufactured a range of trucks and armored vehicles. Its basic BLR four-wheeled armored car was used primarily by the Spanish army; the six-wheeled BMR also was exported to Saudi Arabia and to Egypt. Most of the army's ordnance was produced by Empresa Nacional de Santa Barbara de Industrias Militares (Santa Barbara), including the CETME 5.56mm rifle, in general use by the Spanish army, and the AMX-30E tank, based on French technology. Santa Barbara also manufactured the truck-mounted 140mm Teruel multiple rocket launcher. Larger naval vessels, including Spain's new aircraft carrier, French-designed submarines of the Daphne and the Agosta classes, and FFG-7 frigates of United States design, were constructed by Empresa Nacional Bazan de Construcciones Navales Militares (Bazan) at San Fernando near Cadiz. The predominant aircraft manufacturer, Construcciones Aeronauticas S.A. (CASA), was best known for the C-212, a short takeoff and landing utility plane with a three-ton payload. The company also produced the C-101, a trainer and light fighter, with assistance from West German and American aircraft companies that owned minority interests in CASA. The CN-235 turboprop, a forty-seat airliner with a military version, was being built in cooperation with an Indonesian firm. CASA also was reported in 1987 to be at the design stage of a plane--the Avion Experimental (AX)--that might be selected to replace the F-5 tactical fighters obtained from the United States. This would be an advanced version, of the C-101 with an engine of much greater horsepower. CASA also assembled French-supplied kits for Aerospatiale Super Puma helicopters. It was the principal Spanish firm involved with British, West German, and Italian firms in the Eurofighter consortium planning an entirely new fighter aircraft for the latter half of the 1990s that was expected to replace the Mirages in the existing Spanish inventory. Among other more advanced systems either being produced or in the planning phase were the French-designed Roland and the Italian Aspide air defense missile systems and the European attack helicopter AB-129. The latter was being developed in collaboration with Britain, Italy, and the Netherlands, with production foreseen for the 1990s. The relatively small scale of Spain's own military orders spurred the Spanish armaments industry to develop its export potential and to increase its share of the international arms market. By 1987 it had risen to eighth rank as a world exporter, with a number of clients in the Middle East and in Latin America. In an analysis of 1985 results by an industry group, the Spanish Arms Manufacturers Association, export sales by member firms (125 billion pesetas) exceeded sales to the Ministry of Defense (90 billion pesetas). As of 1988, Spain enforced sales embargoes against countries accused of human rights violations (e.g., South Africa, Chile, and Paraguay), Warsaw Pact and other communist countries, and active belligerents (e.g., Iran and Iraq). The Spanish press has, however, reported widespread violations of these controls, especially in the form of munitions shipments to Iran and to Iraq. Spain also had joined with other North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries and Japan in controlling the export of militarily sensitive goods to communist destinations through the Paris-based Co-ordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM).