Military

Peace Operations in an Insurgency Environment

 

CSC 1997

 

Subject Area - Operations

 

Executive summary

 

Title:  Peace Operations in an Insurgency Environment

 

Author:  Drs. P.A. Grootendorst, Major Royal Netherlands Marine Corps

 

Problem:  Can a conceptual model be developed for examining and better understanding peace operations in an insurgency environment?

 

Discussion: In the last ten years, terrorists, guerrilla groups, well-armed irregular groups and warlords have obstructed peace forces and made their peace operations into failures.  Important UN members are starting to question the capability of the UN to perform as a global peacekeeping organization.  The effectiveness of the UN will further decline if the UN peace forces do not manage to cope with the violent challenges that are part of contemporary peace operations.  In order to reach success in future UN peace operations, one must better understand these hostile environments and have the ability to identify the limitations of and the threats to peace forces operating in a hostile environment.

            From the theory of Kotler a basic model was build and used as a starting point for developing a conceptual model for examining and understanding peace operations in an insurgency environment.  This basic model showed the main actors of the macro environment and the micro environment in an operation area before a peace force or insurgent was operating.  By  introducing a peace force in the basic model and using the theory on peace operations of Mackinlay and Chapra, it became possible to examine and better understand the macro and micro environment of a peace force.  By  introducing an insurgency movement in the basic model and using O'Neill's theory on insurgency and terrorism, it became possible to examine and better understand the macro and micro environment of an insurgent.  Finally both the peace force and the insurgent were introduced in the basic model. This made it possible to examine and better understand the relationship between a peace force and an insurgent.  A relation that determines the threats and limitations to the peace force caused by the insurgent and can determine the success or failure of the peace operation.

 

Conclusions:  Three conclusions can be drawn from the research.  1) The final model for examining peace operations in an insurgency environment gives insights in the relationships between the main actors in the macro and micro environment of a peace force operating in a hostile environment.  2) The final model is a tool that can assist planners of peace operations to  organize, equip and mandate future peace forces better.  It can also help officers of peace operations to improve their understanding of the complex situations they are operating in.  Finally it can be used as a tool for evaluating incidents or operations.  3) Peace operations in insurgency environments can be successful if the peace forces are equipped, organized, mandated and executed based on good understanding of the complex relationships between the actors in micro environment of the peace force.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THIS IS AN OFFICIAL DOCUMENT OF THE MARINE CORPS COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE. QUOTATION FROM, ABSTRACTION FROM, OR REPRODUCTION OF ALL OR ANY PART OF THIS DOCUMENT IS PERMITTED PROVIDED PROPER ACKNOWLEDGMENT IS MADE, INCLUDING THE AUTHOR'S NAME, PAPER TITLE, AND STATEMENT: "WRITTEN IN FULFILLMENT OF A REQUIREMENT FOR THE MARINE CORPS COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE."

 

 

THE OPINIONS AND CONCLUSIONS EXPRESSED HEREIN ARE THOSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL STUDENT AUTHOR AND DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT THE VIEW OF THE ROYAL NETHERLANDS MARINE CORPS, THE UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE OR ANY US OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCY.

 

Table of contents

 

List of figures and tables

 

Chapter 1:  Introduction

1.1       Peace operations and insurgency: An unworkable combination?

1.2       Problem analysis, research objective, restrictions and research design

 

Chapter 2:  The theoretical framework

2.1       Introduction

2.2       Theory of Kotler

2.3       Basic model for examining environments

 

Chapter 3:  Peace operations

3.1       Introduction

3.2       Theory on peace operations

3.3       Model for examining the environment of a peace force

 

Chapter 4:  Insurgency and counter insurgency

4.1       Introduction

4.2       Theory of insurgency and counter insurgency

4.3       Model for examining the environment of an insurgent

 

Chapter 5:  Model for examining peace operations in an insurgency environment

5.1       Introduction

5.2       Model for examining peace operations in an insurgency environment

5.3       Relation between a peace force and an insurgency

           

Chapter 6:  Review

6.1       Introduction

6.2       Theory versus practice

6.3       Insights gained

 

Bibliography

List of figures and tables

Figure 1.1         Research design

 

Figure 2.1         Kotler's model for the marketing environment

Figure 2.2         Basic model for examining environments

 

Figure 3.1         Linear approach to peace operations

Figure 3.2         Non linear approach to peace operations

Table 3.1          Categories of peace operations

Figure 3.3         Model for examining the environment of a peace force

 

Table 4.1          Type of insurgency

Table 4.2          Insurgent strategic approaches

Table 4.3          Insurgent means

Figure 4.1         Summery of the Theory of O'Neill

Table 4.4          Insurgent-counter insurgent means

Figure 4.2         Model for examining the environment of an insurgent

Figure 4.3         Relation between the insurgent and the population

 

Figure 5.1         Model for examining a peace operation in an insurgency environment

Table 5.1          Goal conflicts

Table 5.2          Strategic approach conflict

Table 5.3          Comparison of the means available to a peace force and an insurgent.

 

Figure 6.1         Model for examining a peace operation in an insurgency environment

 

Chapter 1:  Introduction.

"Despite its shortcomings, there is still a vital role for the United Nations and its  agencies to play in the world.  The important point is to have a clear understanding of the UN's capabilities and how best to operate within them."^[1]

                                     Yasushi Akashi, Special Representative of the UN

                                     Secretary-General for Cambodia and former Yugoslavia

 

1.1       Peace operations and insurgency: An unworkable combination?

            The close of the Cold war era has changed UN peace operations in a number  of ways.  First, the cooperation among the permanent members of the Security Council has increased in the Post Cold War political climate, which resulted in a dramatic growth of the amount of UN peace operations.  A second change is the increased number of  Eastern European countries providing contingents to UN peace operations.  The third and maybe the biggest change is the change in character of the latest UN peace operations.  The peace operations of the Cold War era were traditional peacekeeping operations; with the consent of all parties, the UN based impartial peacekeeping forces in between contending parties or states (Cyprus).  The peace operations in the New Era consist of a much wider spectrum of operations including interventions to protect human rights or to prevent genocide or starvation (Somalia).  These New Era peace-operations are often taking the UN peace force into areas where there was no agreement among all parties, or where the governments have limited authority.  In many cases terrorists, guerrilla groups or well-armed irregular groups and warlords  have obstructed these peace operations.  Due to the recent failures of the UN in Somalia, Bosnia and Rwanda, important members of the UN have criticized the UN's capability to perform as a global peacekeeping organization. As an organization made up of 185 sovereign member states and based on universal values, the UN will stay unchallenged.  However, its effectiveness will further decline if UN peace operations do not manage to cope with the violent challenges that are part of the peace operations in this New Era.  Are the recent failures the result of poor execution or the result of poor understanding of the complexity of UN peace operations in insurgency environments?

 

1.2       Problem analysis, research objective, restrictions and research design.

Problem analysis.  UN peace operations in a hostile environment are becoming more and more common as practice.  At the same time UN forces clearly have problems accomplishing their mission in an environment of insurgency.  Because there is no real alternative for the UN as, "the primary global peacekeeping organization,"  this failure can have a negative effect on regional and world stability.  A better understanding of these hostile environments and the ability to identify the limitations of and the threats to peace forces can contribute to future success of peace operations.  The central question for this study is as follows:  How can we better understand and anticipate  hostile environments of  peace forces, in order to be more successful in the future?

Research objective.  The objective of this study is to attain insight into the actors and their relations, both from a theoretical point of view as well as an empirically based point of view.  Both play an important role in determining the success of a peace operation in an insurgency environment.  Having a theoretical framework on peace operations on one hand and one for understanding insurgency and counter-insurgency on the other hand, makes it possible to integrate and combine the two frameworks into one.  This combined framework results in a conceptual model, a useful tool, to examine and understand peace operations in an insurgent environment.  The primary interest of the model is on the actors and their relationships which limits the success of peace operations in an insurgency environment.  On the basis of the formulated central question, the following research questions were formulated:

1.         What peace operation theories exist in the present literature?

2.         What insurgency theories exist in the literature?

3.         Can a model be constructed that gives insight in the hostile environments in which peace forces have to work?

Research design.  This masters paper on peace operations in an insurgent environment follows a clear systematic approach.  Chapter 2 addresses the theories used.  Chapter 3 and 4 contain theories on peace operations and insurgency and counter insurgency.  Chapter 5 shows the results of the previous chapters, combined into a model.  Chapter 6 is the closing chapter and gives the conclusions and recommendations.  (Research design see figure 1.1)

Figure 1.1  Research design.

Chapter 2 :  The theoretical framework.

Understanding change and staying alive means adapting to and influencing the specific environment within you operate.^[2]

                                                              Liz Clarke, 1994

                                                              Consultant specializing in change management

 

2.1       Introduction.

            This chapter offers the theoretical framework, on which the next three chapters will build.  It is a step by step development into a model for examining and understanding peace operations in an insurgency environment.  This chapter can be seen as the start of the building of a model that can assist planners of and officers working in a peace operation to better understand the complexity of peace operations in an insurgency environment.  In this chapter Philip Kotler's theory of the marketing environment is introduced and used to explain the actors and forces in an organization's environment that directly affect the way the organization operates.

 

2.2       Theory of Kotler.

            Philip Kotler defines the marketing environment as the environment that is comprised of the "non controllable" actors and forces that affect the company's ability to develop and maintain successful  transactions and relationships with its target customers.^[3]  In his theory Kotler makes the distinction between the "controllable" and "non controllable" actors and forces.  In this outside-inside approach the "controllable" actors are within and part of the company and the "non controllable" actors are part of the company's environment.  In order to be successful, and because the actors in the environment cannot be controlled by the company, the company must monitor the environment for changes and continuously adapt to them.  The company's environment can be divided into the company's micro environment and the macro environment.  Kotler's basic model is shown in figure 2.1.^[4]

 

Figure 2.1  Kotler's model for the marketing environment.

 

Macro environment. The macro environment is made up of those actors and forces that are outside the company's control and influence.  The forces in the macro environment  according to Kotler are:  demographic, economic, physical, technological, political and cultural forces.  These forces influence all actors in the company's micro environment and should therefore be monitored closely by a company to be successful.

Micro environment. The micro environment consists and is made up of those actors that are outside the company's control but inside the company's influence.  The actors in the micro environment are directly affecting the company's ability to conduct its business successfully.  Kotler identifies the following actors in the micro environment:  the company, suppliers, market intermediaries, customers, competitors and public.  Note that the company is part of its own environment.  The actors in the micro environment have intensive mutual relations and are influencing each other constantly.  To be successful,  the company should examine the relations in the micro environment continuously and influence other actors if needed.  

            Kotler's marketing environment offers a good framework for all kinds of companies and organizations to examine and monitor in order to understand the complex environment they are operating in.  Of course every company should tailor this basic framework to its own special situation by identifying the main or relevant  actors in its micro environment.  Military organizations and peace forces are also organizations.

Therefore Kotler's basic framework can be used as a starting point to develop a tailored model for monitoring and understanding the complex environment in which a peace force must operate.

 

2.3       Basic model for examining environments.

            The "basic model for examining an environment," that will be used as the starting point to develop a "model for examining a peace operation in an insurgency environment," is described below.  A model has two components in it: the model or framework itself as the design and the elements or actors in the model and their mutual relationships.   The basic model, to be further developed into a model for understanding peace operations in an insurgency environment,  is based on Kotler's marketing environment model as described above.  The actors in the basic model are those actors that are already present in a state or area prior to a peace force or insurgency movement.  Figure 2.2 shows the basic model for examining environments and the main actors and forces before a peace force or insurgent is introduced in the area.

Figure 2.2  Basic model for examining environments.

 

There is a clear distinction between the micro environment and the macro environment in the basic model for examining environments.  Both environments have their own actors, relations and characteristics.

            The macro environment: The macro environment consists of the larger forces that are outside the control and influence of the actors in the micro environment.  However, the macro environment affects all the actors in the micro environment.

These forces are:

- Demographic:  size of the (world, region, state) population, its geographical distribution and density, mobility trends, age, dead rates and racial, ethnic and religious structure.

            Algeria is a country about three times the size of Texas, yet 5/6 of it is desert. Only 10 percent of the 26 million people live in this wasteland.

 

- Economic:  consist of factors that effect the economic power and growth within a state. 

            Today 95% of Algeria's foreign-exchange comes from the petroleum and natural gas. If the price of oil would fall, the economy and the Algerian society will be in

             a crisis.^[5]

 

- Nature:  shortage of raw material, increased cost of energy, pollution,

            One cannot examine the situation in a Middle East country without taking into account the water situation in the region.

 

- Technological: new technology can effect both the macro as well as the micro environment.  Technological revolutions especially, should be detected early on.^[6]

- Political: Political decisions are influencing all actors.  Regional treaties but also UN resolutions are affecting sovereign states.

Laws made by the EU are binding for the government and the people of a

member state.

 

- Cultural forces. The basic beliefs, values and norms of the people.

            Egalitarianism is in character for the Dutch, who allow euthanasia and abortion, legally recognize homosexual partnerships and once let their conscripted soldiers wear their hair unprofessionally long.^[7]

 

In order to be successful, a UN peace force or an insurgent has to monitor and examine the macro environment carefully and identify the most important, most likely or most dangerous trends.  The tools for examining the macro environment are outside the scope of this paper.  (Kotler and Wissema^[8] provide excellent tools.)

            The micro environment: The micro environment consists of all the actors that are outside the control but inside the influence of the actors in the micro environment.  The actors have mutual relationships with each other within a state or area.  These actors will influence and will be influenced by a peace force or an  insurgent from the very moment they start operating in the area.  The situation will develop as the result of the characteristics of and the relations between the actors.

Actors in the micro environment.  The following  actors will be used in this paper:

- Government: the government is the authority in a country or state and possesses all the power and authority.  External and internal defense (army), law and order (police), and taxation are exclusive for the government.  On the other hand the government may have the obligation to provide protection, education, public services and medicare to its people. 

- The people: the population in the operation area.

- Other UN agencies: other (non military) agencies of the UN, like UNDP or UNHCR are working in the most troubled countries in the world.  Their goals are humanitarian and  not directly linked to the presence of a UN force.  They are often already working in the area before a UN force arrives and will stay after the "Blue" soldiers have left.  The other UN organizations are mostly working together with the local governments in fields like education, development, medicare and disaster relief. 

- Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs): the NGOs are international relief organizations working in most of the third world countries.  The NGOs generally have universal or humanitarian values and are based in and financed by the western societies.  The NGOs are mostly working independently from the local governments but their work contributes directly to the government's effort to solve the marginal situation in education, development and medicare. 

Relations in the micro environment.  Using the framework we have identified the actors in the micro environment.  To complete the basic model we now have to describe the six  relations that exist between the actors in the micro environment.

- People and Government: The relation of the government is one of authority over the people, but given by the people.  This gives the government the authority within national boundaries to make laws and regulations, but it also gives the government the obligation to protect its people, including minorities.

Operation Uphold Democracy was conducted to restore the relation between president Aristide and the Haitian people.^[9]

 

- People and NGOs: The NGOs are providing assistance to the people out of humanitarian or religious motives.  Some NGOs have longtime structural aid programs while others specialize in disaster relief.  The people are depending on these NGOs who have become part of the economy and society of most third world countries.

Memisa is an example of a religious NGO, based in Rotterdam, that focus on long term structural aid programs, where Medicins Sans Frontiers is a well known NGO that has  specialized in disaster relief.

 

- People and Other UN agencies: Other UN agencies are providing assistance to the people in a country or area.  Some UN agencies have longtime structural aid programs or programs for special groups while others specialize in disaster relief.  The people are depending on these UN agencies who have become part of the economy and society of most third world countries.

UNICEF is an example of a UN agency working for the children, UNHCR is the UN agency that deals with disaster relief.

 

- Government and NGOs: The relation between Government and NGOs is in most cases very good.  The NGOs are supporting and in some cases completely taking over the medical assistance to the people.  However,  medical care remains a government responsibility. 

- Government  and Other UN agencies: The relation between government and other UN agencies is in most cases very good.  The activities of other UN agencies are aimed mainly focused on the support of the population.  In some cases the other UN agencies are completely taking over the medical care for the population from the government.  The relation between the government and controlling UN agencies, most of the times forced upon the government by a UN resolution, is completely different and creates a mostly hostile relationship which can be the source of a lot of trouble.

The verification missions by the UN in Iraq after the Golf War is an excellent example of a hostile relationship between a UN agency and a government.

  

- NGOs and Other UN agencies: The NGOs and other UN organizations have the same focus ( the local population) and generally they are working very good together in human relief and development.  The UN also sponsored many NGOs or UN projects that are executed by the NGOs.

            In this chapter we have, using the theory of Kotler, built a basic model that can be used to examine and understand environments.  We have distinguished the micro and macro environment, both with their own characteristics and actors or forces.  The macro environment consists of the larger forces that will influence all actors in the micro environment but cannot be influenced by them.  The macro environment should be monitored carefully.  The micro environment consists of the actors that are mutually influencing each other.  For the basic model that will be expanded in the next chapters, we identified the government, the people, NGOs and other UN agencies as relevant actors and characterized their mutual relations.  In the next chapter (chapter 3) we will expand the basic model by introducing a peace force as one of the actors into the micro environment.  In chapter 4, an insurgency movement will be introduced into the basic model.  Finally, in chapter 5, we will introduce both a peace force as well as an insurgent into the basic model.  This will result in the final model of this paper.  This model can be used by planners of and officers working in  peace operations in an insurgency environment.

 

Chapter 3:  Peace operations.

"A principle of the United Nations which is absolutely binding upon all is the maintenance of peace, in order to protect human life."

                                                   Dag Hammarskjold, Secretary-General 1961^[10]

 

3.1       Introduction.

            Peace operations are not limited to Chapter VI peacekeeping operations, "Pacific Settlement of Disputes," but also include Chapter VII peace enforcement operations which can include war (Korea 1950), "Actions With Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, [and] Acts of Aggression."^[11]   In the post Cold War era not only was  peacekeeping conducted but also a variety of other peace operations took place.  Authors introduced terms such as peace building, peacemaking and Chapter VI+ operations to describe these new forms of peace operations.^[12]  In this chapter, a "model for examining the environment of a peace force," will be developed by introducing a peace force as a new actor in the "basic model for examining an environment."  Before constructing the new model, I will first look at the peace operations using a theory that distinguishes nine different categories of peace operations.  By using the same framework and method in the next chapter to look at insurgency and counter-insurgency, it is possible to combine both peace operations and insurgency into a final model that can help planners of and officers executing peace forces to better understand and anticipate the hostile environments of peace forces, in order to be more successful in the future.

3.2       Theory on peace operations.

            Peace operations are military operations in support of a diplomatic effort to maintain or restore the peace in an area of (potential) conflict.^[13]  Peace operations are part of Military Operations Other Than War (MOOTW) and includes both combat and non-combat military operations.^[14]  Different authors have divided peace operations in different ways.  I have chosen to use the nine categories of John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra.  The future-oriented view of the two writers favored this choice.  In their "Concept of Second Generation Multinational Operations 1993,"^[15] they have arranged the categories of peace operations in three levels. 

Level One. Level One consists of the traditional observer and peacekeeping missions conducted in support of a solution after a conflict between states has ended.

- An observer mission is defined as:  a operation where military officers or civilian officials, whose principle task is to observe and report on a developing situation or on the execution of a peace agreement between previous conflicting parties, are deployed with the consent of all parties in the area. 

- A peace keeping mission is defined as: a military or paramilitary operation that is undertaken with the consent of all major belligerents, designed to monitor and facilitate implementation of an existing truce and support diplomatic efforts to reach a long-term political settlement.^[16] 

Level Two.  Level Two describes five categories of operation that can occur in a conflict between communities within a state, rather than between states and consists of the following five categories of operations:

- Preventive deployment is defined as: interpositioning or protecting operations at an interface or zone of potential conflict where tension is rising between parties.^[17]

- Internal conflict resolution measures are defined as: operations to restore and maintain order and stability within a state or area where competent civil authority has ceased to function.^[18]

- Assistance to (interim) civil authority is defined as: operations to maintain a workable level of peace and security which allows the humanitarian, human rights and civil administration elements, of a UN force or government,  to function effectively.

- Protection of human relief operations is defined as: operations of a UN or multinational military relief protection force to ensure the delivery of supplies in an area where the normal process of lead agency negotiation is inadequate.^[19]

- The guarantee and denial of movement is defined as: operations that guarantee or deny movement by air, land or sea in a particular area or routes.  The objective is to prevent the harassment of an unprotected population by the use of combat aircraft or to ensure that goods can reach a besieged city or community.^[20]

Level Three.  The third level consists of operations in which UN forces use their heavy weapons capability to counter an inter or intra state conflict that causes a major threat to human rights or international or regional peace and security.  Level three consists of the following two categories of operations.^[21]

- Sanctions are defined as: operations in support of a UN resolution and consist of the denial of supplies, diplomatic and trading privileges, and freedom of movement of an identified aggressor (Article 41 of UN Charter).

- High intensity operations are defined as: operations to enforce the ultimate sanction of the UN Security Council to counter a serious threat to the international peace and security.  These operations can involve a major operation or war against an identified aggressor state (Article 42 of the UN Charter).

            During the Cold War period peace operations were approached in a linear manner using a continuum as is showed in figure 3.1.^[22]  Mackinlay and Chapra, like many authors, emphasize that there are no longer clearly defined boundaries between the three levels or the nine categories of operations.  Rapid and  nonlinear changes in the character of a peace operation is a major challenge to a UN force (see figure 3.2).  In this approach, it is from a military point of view only possible to move from one category of operation to the next, after the peace force has been reorganized, re-equipped and re-mandated.^[23] Bosnia, Somalia and Rwanda have taught us that a UN peace force can find itself in a situation in which the character of the operation changed or in which it suddenly has to execute more than one category of operation simultaneously.

Figure 3.1 Linear approach to peace operations.     

 It is clear that to be successful, a UN peace force should be structured, equipped and mandated for the most difficult category of mission it has to execute.  One should not expect an observer mission to successfully protect a Human Relief operation. 

This lesson was relearned by the Dutch UNPROFOR force. The Dutch peace force was organized and equipped for peacekeeping but was tasked to protect the "safe area" of Srebenica, Bosnia against an heavy armored Serbian aggressor.^[24]

 

Figure 3.2 Non linear approach to peace operations.

           

            The nine categories of military operations in which UN multinational peace forces may be used are listed below in Table 3.1, in approximate order of military intensity, ranging from Observer Missions (UNTSO) and Peacekeeping (UNIFIL) to  Sanctions and High Intensity Operations (Korea 1950).  Table 3.1 shows the aim, the tasks, the means and examples of the different categories used by John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra in their "Concept of Second Generation Multinational Operations."   In their concept, Mackinlay and Chapra focus internally on the UN forces and the controllable actors and factors like: tasks, characteristics, operational concepts and the legal provisions of a UN peace force.  However, the UN force is not the only one that determines the situation in the operation area as was found out the hard way by the UN forces in Bosnia, Somalia and Rwanda.    These experiences showed that they were only one of the actors that were determining the situation.  The basic model from Chapter 2 will be further expanded by introducing a peace force into it.  This expanded model makes it possible to study the environment of a peace force including the other relevant actors and their relationship to the peace force.  It is this relationship along with the environment of a peace force that can determine the success or the failure of a UN peace operation.

 

Table 3.1 Categories of Peace operations.

Kind of operation	Aim & Missions	Task	Means	Examples
observer mission LEVEL  I	to maintain the peace	observe, supervise, inspect, investigate, negotiate, liaison and provide early warning	unarmed officers with consent parties	UNTSO Lebanon
peacekeeping LEVEL  I	to help maintain and restore peace	supervise withdrawals, separate combat forces, establish neutral zones, presence	only use of force as for self defense, small and lightly armed,	UNFICYP Cyprus
preventive deployment LEVEL  II	to prevent a conflict when tension is rising	interposition, protect human relief efforts, assist local authorities or the people, law	use of force for protective tasks and self defense	Somalia
internal conflict resolution measures LEVEL  II	to restore and maintain a level of peace and security in an internal conflict	to liaison, construct cease-fire, disarming cantonment, custody of weapons, supervising, reconstruction	number of parties, parties hard to identify, no consent, area of ops vague, more danger for UN personal as third party	IFOR former Yugoslavia
assistance to interim civil authority LEVEL  II	to supervise and police a internal peace agreement, assist in rebuilding incl. elections	to assist in: security maintaining law and order, essential services, elections and mine clearing	max. strength but min. force, mobile, civil tasks, instability and potential violence	UNTAC Cambodia
protection of human relief ops LEVEL  II	to protect the relief organizations and the people	to organize and coordinate, NEO's, providing area and transport security	speed, use of force to enable and self protection, limited duration	PROVIDE COMFORT N-Iraq
guarantee and denial of movement LEVEL  II	to enforce a UN Security Council resolution	to monitor, control and deny sea and air space	no fly zones, restricted sea-areas, use of force authorized	SHARP GUARD Adriatic
sanctions LEVEL III	to enforce sanctions to deter and influence an aggressor	to patrol airspace, and close all land and sea approach	art 41 UN charter heavy weapons, use of force authorized	SHARP GUARD Adriatic
high intensity operations LEVEL  III	to win and meet political objectives	all military task as in war	art 42 UN charter	DESERT STORM Iraq

 

 

3.3       Environment of a peace operation.

            By introducing a peace force into the basic model that was developed in Chapter 2, we have constructed a model that can be used to understand and examine the environment of a peace force.  Figure 3.3 shows the model for examining the environment of a peace force.  The model  includes the main actors and the forces that both influence and are being influenced by a peace force while it is conducting a peace operation.  Analogous to the basic model,  the environment of a peace force can be divided into the peace force's micro environment and its macro environment of a peace operation.

Figure 3.3  Model for examining the environment of a peace force. 

            The macro environment:  As in the basic model, the macro environment is outside the control and influence of individual actors, the peace force.   Because a UN force cannot influence the macro environment  it is up to the UN Security Counsel to create a favorable macro environment for its forces.  This can be done by isolating the operation area from unfavorable outside interference.

The operations Sky Monitor and Sharp Guard are examples of supporting operations to the UN force on the ground in the former Yugoslavia.^[25]

 

            The micro environment:  Figure 3.3 visualizes the peace force, the other actors and their mutual relations in a peace operation.  Using the insights from the Chapter 2 and the above model for examining the environment of a peace force we can characterize the mutual relations within the micro environment shown above.  (Relations already described in the basic model are not described again.)

- UN forces and Government: A UN force will (when possible) deploy with the consent of all parties in support of a peace agreement.  In Level 2 and 3 operations it is possible that the UN force will act without consent or cooperation. 

The peace operation in Cambodia was based on the Paris Accord; all parties agreed on the UN presence and a fixed timeline.  Even the present relation  between IFOR and the Bosnian Serbs government in Pale is one of cooperation based on the Dayton Accords.

 

- UN Forces and People: The people in an operation area will judge the peace force on their actions and the improvements of their own situation.  Because all peace operations have humanitarian aspects, helping and protecting the people, this relation is generally friendly. 

The population of both Mogadishu and Sarajevo were depending for survival on the UN food convoys.  However, the relation between the UN forces and the population of Sarajevo was friendly and the relation between the UN force and the population of Mogadishu was hostile.  The difference between the two was the result the non humanitarian actions conducted by the UN force in Somalia (hunt for Aideed).

 

- UN Forces and NGOs: Although both actors have the same humanitarian goals, there is very little coordination and cooperation between.  The NGO workers will only go to the UN force for protection in emergency situations. 

In Rwanda a NGO fieldhospital and a UN water installation were, for security reasons, co-located and protected by a Royal Netherlands Marine Unit after the death of two NGO workers.

 

- UN Forces and Other UN Agencies: These actors have the same humanitarian goals and are sometimes part of the same UN effort.  The cooperation between both actors is good but the coordination needs improvement.

An example how good coordination can be established is the UNTAC mission in Cambodia.  In Cambodia the UN military sector commanders provided the coordination between UN military and other UN agencies working in their sector.

 

The above description of  the relations and the number of relevant actors can change from one category of peace operation to the other.  For example: level 1 operations are normally conducted between states, observers and peacekeeping missions, so the model will contain two government actors. 

 

            Application of the model.  The model for examining the environment suitable for a peace force can be used in planning, preparing, executing and evaluation of a peace operation. 

- Planning and preparation.  During the planning and preparation of a peace operation, the model can assist officers in identifying and characterizing the relevant actors that influence  their operations.  Understanding the character of the present relations within the area, the expected changes in these relations and the future characteristics of these relations with the peace force (friendly or hostile) can assist planners to organize, equip and mandate the peace force in the right way. 

- Execution.  During execution the peace force should monitor the relationships within the micro environment.  By doing so, the peace force will detect changes early on and can prevent surprises.  By detecting early that the relationship with one of the actors is declining, measures can be taken to improve the relationship or to take other appropriate actions such as, changing organization, equipment, force protection measures or changing the ROE. 

- Evaluation.  The model can be used to evaluate an incident or to determine why one peace operation (Cambodia) was a success and why others have failed (Bosnia or Rwanda).  It can help to explain the actions or reactions of one or all the actors involved in the peace force. 

The attack on the US Marines in Beirut can be better understood by using the model for examining the environment of a peace force.  The US saw themselves as an impartial peace keeping force but they were training one of the actors, Lebanese Armed Forces .  The Marines' relations with the Christian population were much better than their relations with the Muslim population.  On the 4th of September the most powerful actor that dictated the character of the environment in Beirut, the Israeli forces, were withdrawing from Beirut.  This created a vacuum and the US Marines were forced into the role of the most powerful actor, but there organization, equipment and mandate did not change as the environment changed.  In the perception of the Muslim actors (PSP and PLO) the US naval gunfire bombardment on Muslim targets in the September was inevitable, given the US  Marines-Muslim relationship.  But so was the October 23th bombing of the marine barracks. ^[26]

 

            In the present era peace operations involve much more than observer missions and classic peacekeeping.  To understand contemporary peace operations one must understand the difference between the different categories of peace operations and their missions, tasks and available means.  The character of a peace operation can change instantly as a peace force often has to conduct more than one category of operation simultaneously due to changing circumstances.  To understand and anticipate these changes one must understand the environment influencing these peace operations.  The environment of a peace force consists of a macro and a micro environment, both with their own characteristics.  The peace forces cannot control or influence the macro environment, but they should be alert to the changes that can influence the micro environment.  The UN Security Council should try to influence the macro environment in order to make it favorable to the UN peace operation.  The micro environment can be influenced, but not controlled, by a peace force.  The micro environment consists of all the actors including the peace force who are constantly interacting and trying to influence each other.  The mutual relations between the main actors and changes in these relations  determine the environment in which a peace force must operate.  This is a very important factor that determine success or failure of  a peace operation.  The model developed in this Chapter, "the model for examining the environment of a peace force," can be used by planners and officers conducting a peace operation to better understand the complex environment.  The improved understanding will result in a better organized, equipped and mandated peace forces at the start of the operation capable of adjusting and reacting to changing circumstances.

Chapter 4:  Insurgency and counter-insurgency.

"As a product of the interaction between the guerrilla fighter and the people, a progressive radicalization appears which further accentuates the revolutionary characteristics of the movement and gives it a national scope."^[27]