Military

Your response to the TEAM MC&G Handbook greatly exceeded our modest expectations. Thank you for the encouraging feedback! Although written specifically for naval aviation system developers in their language, a strong, unexpected external demand for copies surprised us. It seems that much of the handbook has generic application to MC&G fans throughout DoD. Other commands and Services intend to imitate it!

You thought we hit the right issues. You particularly appreciated the plain, concise English. You also cited the timeliness of Section VII on product accuracy – but needed more – and the value of Appendix C, Useful Statistics About Selected DMA Products. We took your comments to mean that the handbook was worth further improvement.

Version 2.0 is our answer. Most of the first version survived your high expectations and remains intact. We corrected all obsolete information and known errors. We added an appendix with additional information on accuracy. We included additional guidance when dealing with contractors and some late breaking news on Military Specifications and Standards. After doing that, we decided to redo the text heavy format to make the handbook visually appealing and ultimately more accessible. We did this because too many folks in naval aviation still don’t know what they need to know about m, s, & j.

Originally, we planned this as our last hard copy version to reflect the 1 October 1994 TEAM reorganization, followed by soft copy changes after that. We have changed this revision strategy. We will publish future hard copy versions as significant changes warrant. We will uniquely identify them by a whole number with a suffix of "point zero," such as this one, Version 2.0, and distribute them, using our latest mailing list. A version suffix of one through nine, e. g., Version 2.1, means that we consider the changes minor. These versions will be available electronically through the NAVAIR Headquarters Network (NHN).

This handbook is for all members of the Naval Aviation Systems Team (TEAM). It is your initial reference for information about Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy (MC&G) support from the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA).

This handbook will:

clarify MC&G relevance to TEAM systems development and your job,

guide you in acquiring a necessary basic competence in MC&G,

explain the process for you to get DMA MC&G data and services, and

point you to help on MC&G within the TEAM, DMA, and elsewhere.

You don’t have to read the whole thing front to back right away, if ever. We organized it for browsing. For more details on a particular topic see the

box at the end of each section.

We recognize that you are busy and your work is important, so we included an Executive Gouge that distills the essence of the handbook on one page. If you read the Executive Gouge on the next page and intuitively grasp the fundamental implications of each nugget of truth…well, you need read no more! Furthermore, you become a Geospatial Information Prophet and can grant audiences with those of dimmer wattage than yourself. Then you can reveal to DMA the next crisis area that needs mapping which is, of course, where our next war will be. If anyone needs to know, they do.

One other thing. When we generally speak of warfighters, we are not talking just about the shooters. We mean all of you on the TEAM: developers, planners, everybody. We know your support is integral to their success.

If you now are beginning to wonder:

– please read on!

Page  

Introduction to Version 2.0 i

Introduction iii

Executive Gouge v

Section I. Do You Need MC&G Support For Your TEAM Activity? 1

Geospatial Information 1

DMA 1

Interoperability 2

Memorandum Of Understanding 3

Where To Find It 3

Section II. MC&G Requirements In TEAM Systems Development 5

Two Kinds Of Requirements 5

Some Basic Considerations 5

The Role Of CNO (N096) 9

The Role Of CNMOC 9

The Role Of NRL 9

Evaluating DMA Prototypes 10

MIL-SPEC And MIL-STD Waivers 10

When Your Contractor Wants MC&G Data 10

MC&G And Foreign Military Sales 11

Where To Find It 11

Section III. Building Your MC&G Library 13

DoD Documents 13

Military Specifications And Standards 13

DMA Documents 13

Other Sources 17

DMA Catalogs 17

DMA Software 18

Where To Find It 19

Section IV. How To Get MC&G Training 21

Off Site 21

On Site 21

Where To Find It 21

Section V. Demonstrations Of DMA Products And Capabilities 23

At The DMA Hydrographic/Topographic Center 23

At The DMA Combat Support Center 23

At The DMA Warrior Support Center 23

On Site Deployment 23

In Air-4.5 23

On Your Desktop 23

Where To Find It 23

Section VI. How To Get DMA Products 25

Basic Information 25

Routine Ordering 26

Not So Routine Ordering 27

Voice Customer Assistance 28

Ordering For The TEAM 28

Where To Find It 29

Section VII. A Bit About DMA Product Accuracy And Such 31

Some History 31

The Shape Of Our Earth 31

Projections and Scales 33

Images And Maps 34

Color Accuracy 35

Coordinate Reference Systems 35

Measures Of Accuracy 36

Accuracy Versus Precision 37

Pseudo Accuracy 38

Datums 38

WGS 84 39

Datum Transformation and Coordinate Conversion 40

The Global Positioning System 40

Precise Target Coordinate Sources 41

Complete Position Reporting 43

Where To Find It 43

Section VIII. Keeping Up With MC&G Progress 45

Sources Of Information 45

Another Peek At The Future 45

New DMA Initiatives 46

Developmental Products And Services 48

Where To Find It 52

Section IX. Measuring DMA Combat Support Performance 53

The Need 53

Customer Service Measurement 53

Quality Feedback 53

Joint Teams 56

Where To Find It 56

Acknowledgments 57

APPENDIX A. Key MC&G Players 59

APPENDIX B. Matrix Of TEAM Customers And DMA Products 63

APPENDIX C. Useful Statistics About Selected DMA Products 67

APPENDIX D. Accuracy And Positional Error 75

APPENDIX E. Datums, Grids, And Cockpits, Oh My 81

APPENDIX F. Those Inevitable Acronyms 85

Everyone on the TEAM has questions, problems, and issues; this is the nature of systems development. The common backdrop supporting Department of Defense (DoD) weapon systems and their development is MC&G spatially referenced data. This being true, you might wonder: "Is my problem, issue, or question related to MC&G?" If your weapon system needs reference or positioning information, it uses geospatial information and you need to know about MC&G. Your system won’t work without it. The newest weapon systems require digital geospatial information in increasing amounts, quicker, and on varying media for successful mission operations. So what do you know about this thing called geospatial information?

1. Geospatial Information. Geospatial information is dimensional data referenced to the earth and its environment. Map makers give the information its meaning through formal representations that describe distances, direction, size, and relative position. Spatial objects, which vary in location or time, are either picture elements (pixels), points, lines, or areas (sometimes called polygons). Cartographers measure, encode with coordinates, and further define these objects with other attributes and values. Then they store them in raster or vector data models for the warfighter’s later use. This information will print or display as text, imagery, or accurate models of the real world. For maximum value to the warfighter, geospatial information should be worldwide, highly accurate, continuously updated, electronically delivered, and referenced in space in a universally usable way.

These ideas compose a new notional concept from DMA called Global Geospatial Information and Services (GGI&S). GGI&S is the future of MC&G. Warfighters will use and exchange GGI&S data anytime, anywhere. They will use it for measuring, mapping, monitoring, modeling and simulation, mission rehearsal, and visualizing and evaluating the battle space. Other new and exciting spatial reasoning applications await discovery. It will take many years, significant resources, and unprecedented cooperation throughout DoD to achieve the ultimate potential that an infrastructure of geospatial information promises. To be successful, GGI&S must meet the needs of informed customers like you, rather than MC&G data providers like DMA.

DMA employs approximately 7,700 civilians and about 275 military personnel representing all Services. Professional specialties include cartography, geodesy, geology, astronomy, oceanography, remote sensing, photogrammetry, optics, computer science, and engineering. The DMA FY93 budget was $763 million, less than a day’s worth of the DoD budget.

DMA is the sole DoD provider of MC&G support to joint warfighter operations. Some examples are: combat, search and rescue, peacekeeping, evacuations, humanitarian efforts, counter drug operations, disaster relief, crisis, surveillance, deterrence, planning, training, special operations, and, of course, systems development.

Many DoD elements, including the development community, don't know the wide range of MC&G products and services free to them from DMA. DMA makes more than 230 MC&G product lines including 70 digital ones. More are on the way.

Advances in technology and warfighter expectations require DMA MC&G products and services of improved accuracy and currency, increased information content, covering more diverse areas of the world with faster delivery. These higher expectations are especially challenging in the present DoD budget reduction that has significantly affected DMA.

3. Interoperability. Joint Pub 1-02 says: "Interoperability is the ability of systems, units or forces to provide services to, and to accept services from, other systems, units or forces, and to use the exchanged services to operate effectively together." Talk about a classic understatement with leading implications!

The DoD Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy Joint Interoperability Board (MJIB) is a flag level body chaired by the DMA Director. It ensures proper consideration of DoD MC&G standards and interoperability in systems development. The Oceanographer of the Navy represents the TEAM at MJIB meetings. The Geospatial Standards Management Committee (GSMC) is the working level support group that identifies issues and makes recommendations to the MJIB. The DMA Liaison Officer (DMALO) and the TEAM Meteorological/Oceanographic (METOC) Officer bring TEAM system development concerns to the GSMC.

4. Memorandum Of Understanding. In June of 1993, the Director of DMA and the Commander of Naval Air Systems Command signed a Memorandum of Understanding that established a DMA Liaison Office at NAVAIR. NAVAIR has an urgent need to develop and identify MC&G requirements as early as possible in the system development cycle. The avoidable costs are significant. The DMA Liaison Officer helps the TEAM in early identification of MC&G requirements for sensor systems, targeting systems, autonomous weapons, aircraft avionics, modeling and simulations, mission planning, and mission rehearsal systems from conceptual design through advanced development. The DMALO works closely with the TEAM to address their MC&G needs in system development documents such as MNSs, ORDs, RFIs, RFPs, and COEAs. The DMALO also simplifies the exchange of MC&G policy and procedural issues such as planning, programming, budgeting, and management of requirements. While the DMALO represents the Director of DMA, the position is not another required layer of coordination. The DMA Liaison Office encourages direct contact between the TEAM members and DMA action officers and simultaneous communication with the METOC Officer in NAVAIR to ensure proper coordination of MC&G requirements.

.Where to find it:

1. Two Kinds Of Requirements. Two kinds of requirements exist in MC&G: developmental (sometimes called functional) requirements and operational requirements. They are different. Developmental requirements come from the service development commands such as NAVAIR. The usual MC&G outcomes are DMA test data sets, product prototypes, and hardware and software related to the development. On the other hand, operational (or "area") requirements come from the Services, Unified Commands, and the JCS, not from the developers. They identify MC&G coverage for operational use. These go through a priority process so that DMA produces the most important areas first. System developers must take the initiative and talk to the warfighters and their MC&G support staffs early and often in the development process. If not, a system can deploy for which NO operational MC&G coverage exists. Amazingly, this has already happened, with embarrassing and costly consequences! There is no substitute for clear teamwork in MC&G.

2. Some Basic Considerations. DMA and the TEAM learned from painful experience the following MC&G articles of faith that apply to system development.

Article A. The earlier you involve MC&G in development the better for everyone. It saves big bucks. Be clear about when you need MC&G support in the development cycle.

Article B. Know, in warfighter terms, the intended use(s) of MC&G data. Nothing is more important! It drives the accuracy and every other characteristic of the product. Some examples of intended use:

System developers need to identify which of these uses will require additional application software either furnished by DMA or developed by others.

Article C. What is the MC&G positional accuracy required by the warfighter? Express it in absolute and relative terms (feet or meters) at some probability level (typically 50% or 90%) for vertical and horizontal dimensions, or spherically. [See Section VII and Appendix D for more on this important subject.]

Article D. What MC&G information density and data coverage does the warfighter need for expected areas of operation? This may seem relatively unimportant during development but it directly influences such variables as data storage capacity, processing speed, and selection of the storage medium. It requires close coordination among developers, operational planners, and those determining area requirements. This information drives DMA’s production schedule to meet Fleet needs.

Article E. Choose the appropriate MC&G digital data structure (raster, vector, matrix, imagery, text). Most warfighters find data structures uninteresting; however, system developers need a basic familiarity to make intelligent decisions on implementation. Each structure has inherent advantages and disadvantages.

•  Raster. The raster structure has a simple format of rows and columns of pixels. The pixel (short for "picture element") is the smallest non-divisible part of a digital image. The row and column of each pixel location determine the geospatial position. Raster condenses all information about that pixel to a single value. There are several algorithms to choose the single value. This single value generalizes reality, simplifying the data and storage formats and the processing time. Excessive magnification of a displayed raster file degrades the visual fidelity and does not improve the accuracy of the content. Raster product accuracy depends on the production process, pixel size, and other factors.

•  Vector. The vector structure, in contrast to the single pixel value of raster features, describes features objectively and subjectively in great detail. Vector features are points, lines, or areas defined by polygons. The vector structure is more flexible because at any magnification it preserves feature content and retains maximum digitized positional accuracy. Vector is not a simple data structure like raster; it requires sophisticated data manipulation software at an additional significant storage cost. By comparison, digital data for one Operational Navigation Chart typically needs 6-7 MB of vector storage instead of 320 MB in raster form – a vector to raster ratio of about 1:50. While raster files are bigger than vector files for a specified area of earth, the vector files take longer for data access and display. Another significant difference is accuracy. Vector product accuracy obviously doesn’t consider pixel size, but, like raster product accuracy, depends on the production process and other factors.

•  Matrix. The matrix (also called gridded) structure is a kind of raster that needs no condensing algorithm since the original source information is a single value. In MC&G applications, this is a data file of terrain elevations where each elevation is the pixel content.

•  Imagery. Digital imagery is also a kind of raster that has richer information content. The richness of content is proportional to the size of the pixels.

•  Text. The digital text structure includes text-based embedded objects (such as graphics) plus the usual keyboard data (such as narrative descriptions).

Article F. Eliminate or reduce pre-processing of standard DMA MC&G data before warfighter use. In the past, DoD expended resources on proprietary contractor software that transformed standard DMA data for unique hardware. Such costly reformatting, data compression, and similar data manipulation are no longer affordable. Smart system development will make it unnecessary. Design the system to use standard DMA data whenever possible. Early coordination with DMA will make integration easier.

Article G. Clearly identify each functional capability. Some examples:

What are the associated performance characteristics for each capability? How easy to use? How fast? Do these capabilities require unique software tools and applications that are not available from DMA?

Article H. How will the warfighter make updates (additions, deletions, corrections) to the MC&G data?

Article I. What storage medium does the warfighter need? A CD-ROM has the storage capacity of about 600 MB or 18 square feet of paper maps. This equals about four 1:250,000 maps or 10,000 square nautical miles. A CD can also hold more than 200 1° cells of DTED (280 million elevations) covering 440,000 square nautical miles. For comparison, this much data would require between 10 and 20 half-inch nine-track Computer Compatible Tapes (CCT) recorded at 6,250 CPI. Compression techniques, when appropriate, dramatically increase storage capacity for MC&G data. Other storage possibilities include write once read many (WORM) optical disks, erasable optical disks, videodisks, and 8 mm tape cartridges.

Article J. Build in a capacity for growth where it makes sense. We don’t fully know the potential applications for MC&G digital data!

3. The Role Of CNO (N096). The Oceanographer of the Navy, CNO (N096), is responsible for all Navy MC&G matters (which includes Marine Corps aviation through the NAVAIR link) including validation and submission of Navy MC&G requirements to DMA. You probably are asking yourself: Why the Oceanographer of the Navy? Navy’s contribution to MC&G source information originated with the collection of bathymetry data, and N096 still owns the ships that collect this data.

When the Fleet needs MC&G support, TEAM developers determine whether an adequate product already exists. If not, they work with DMA to develop a new or modified product. They submit this requirement by letter to DMA through N096.

4. The Role Of CNMOC. The Commander, Naval Meteorology Oceanography Command integrates fleet and development requirements into a detailed survey plan. This plan dictates the employment of the Oceanographic Fleet by the Naval Oceanographic Office. The Oceanographic Fleet collects oceanographic information such as bathymetry, gravity, acoustic measurements, and non-acoustic parameters.

5. The Role Of NRL. The Naval Research Laboratory at Stennis Space Center has the Navy expertise for MC&G research and development. NRL produced CAC used by the F/A-18 and AV-8B aircraft. They also provide technical evaluation of all new DMA products for the Navy and Marine Corps. NRL has a wealth of experience in digital moving maps, digital data bases, compression of scanned map data, digital map image enhancement, color palette optimization, and software development for map stations and mission planning systems. Any TEAM program office can work with them directly.

6. Evaluating DMA Prototypes. The TEAM, a big user of DMA products, greatly influences new product development. If you want to evaluate a prototype, contact the TEAM METOC Officer to get on the master list of prototype evaluators. Anyone on the TEAM can evaluate a prototype including your contractors. (Contractors must confirm their compliance with any release restrictions.) If you evaluate a prototype you also participate in technical exchange meetings and respond to questionnaires. Please keep in mind that due to the nature of prototyping minor changes can occur from the final prototype to the first production copy.

7. MIL-SPEC And MIL-STD Waivers. Add Military Specifications and Military Standards to the list of endangered species. MC&G Military Specifications will migrate toward system specific performance specifications. MC&G Military Standards will migrate to interface standards. Currently, system developers must request waivers since no commercial equivalents for MC&G specifications and standards exist today. The sole responsibility to grant MC&G waivers for the TEAM belongs to the Navy Department Standardization Officer (DepSO) who is also responsible for enforcing the use of commercial standards. FIPS and ANSI standards have standing waivers. DMA does not have the authority to grant MC&G waivers for the TEAM.

8. When Your Contractor Wants MC&G Data. DMA digital data bases are defense information and an increasingly valuable national resource. All provided DMA data is government furnished information (GFI) under the Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement (DFARS). DFARS CLAUSE 252.245-7000 IS MANDATORY IN ALL SOLICITATIONS AND CONTRACTS WHEN MC&G IS TO BE FURNISHED. The Code of Federal Regulations provides guidance (48 CFR Sections 245.310 and 245.310-70). Contractors can use MC&G data only for the purposes of the contract. They are responsible for protecting this information against misuse or loss. DMA Instruction 8660.10, "Procedures for Request, Release, Handling, and Distribution of Defense Mapping Agency Mapping, Charting and Geodesy Digital Products," provides additional guidance.

Contractors submit requests for standard DMA products through their TEAM sponsor and the NAVAIR MC&G Team to N096. Release of MC&G data for system demonstrations is generally permissible if it always remains under Government control.

Foreign contractors complicate the release process. Please discuss all potential foreign contractors with your MC&G Team as early as possible.

DMA generally discourages contractors from establishing or retaining DMA subscription accounts. Why? If the contractor orders DMA products not authorized under the contract, DMA must charge for those products to recoup the costs, just as it does for public sale items. The DMA oversight controls required to protect against such potential fraud, waste, and abuse are an unnecessary expense.

9. MC&G And Foreign Military Sales. FMS does not automatically guarantee MC&G data as part of the sale. DMAI 8660.10 states that DMA is not responsible for providing digital MC&G products for weapon systems sold to foreign governments. DMA products and services may, or may not, be available because of sensitive sources and production methods, existing international agreements, operational or contingency plans, copyrights, or other release factors. The Director, DMA makes the decision to include MC&G data as part of FMS, not a TEAM program office, system developer, or contractor. Existing bilateral agreements between DMA and a particular country may already allow FMS release. To avoid delays and potential embarrassment for DoD, the TEAM must coordinate with DMA before making any kind of commitment to release MC&G products to FMS customers. The release of MC&G data can be very simple or quite complex and DMA handles each case separately. By the way, declassification of MC&G data doesn’t mean automatic release.

Some examples of recent DMA FMS guidance:

1. DoD Documents.

MOP 31. Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Memorandum of Policy 31 (CJCS MOP 31), "Submitting and Assigning Priorities to Requirements for Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy Support," is the CJCS statement of policy for submitting and prioritizing MC&G operational requirements. DMA maintains the approved consolidated data base of DoD MC&G production priorities.

Master Migration Plan. The CJCS Master Mapping, Charting & Geodesy Migration Plan, now in coordination, will describe the planning process for identifying digital MC&G standards for joint use and document related program migration strategies. It will identify start-up dates for new joint MC&G products and establish ‘sunset’ dates for legacy products. In some instances, developers must reengineer systems to exploit standard data formats mandated by OSD.

2. Military Specifications And Standards. National strategic objectives for joint and combined operations require interoperability of MC&G data, applications, and equipment. Interoperability of MC&G digital data and software assures consistent accuracy, data structure, feature coding, coordinate reference systems, datums, and spatial resolution. Interoperability allows exchange of MC&G information among warfighters, planners, and developers regardless of Service. It demands the rigorous development and enforcement of standards for geospatial data exchange and exploitation. The only MC&G standards and specifications today are military ones because no commercial equivalents exist. Military standards and specifications are available from the Defense Printing Service and the Naval Publications and Forms Directorate.

MC&G Glossary. MIL-HDBK-850, "Glossary of Mapping, Charting, and Geodetic Terms," is a valuable reference for developers unfamiliar with MC&G terminology and their meanings.

3. DMA Documents. The following DMA publications directly apply to weapon system development:

Strategic Direction. "Strategic Direction for the Defense Mapping Agency: A Vision for the 21st Century," published in February 1994, is a policy document for the near-term and long-range future. The implications for advanced weapon system development are worth knowing.

GGI&S. The best reference on GGI&S to date is the professional paper, "The Global Geospatial Information and Services Initiative," written by Roberta Lenczowski of DMA and published in the 1994 IMAGE VII Proceedings. All TEAM system developers and their contractors need to understand the notional concepts behind this vital part of the evolving National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI). GGI&S will be the DoD worldwide spatial reference for interoperability.

Continuous Improvement. "DMA Plan For Continuous Improvement: Creativity, Excellence, and Teamwork," Version 2, implements the DMA strategic direction using a Total Quality (TQ) approach. It nicely complements the TEAM vision.

TEAM MC&G Plan. "Naval Aviation Systems Team Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy Plan," is the action plan for your MC&G Team in Air-4.5.

Requesting MC&G Products and Prototypes. DMA Instruction 8660.10, "Procedures for Request, Release, Handling, and Distribution of Defense Mapping Agency Mapping, Charting and Geodesy Digital Products," covers requests for existing products including prototypes. It includes DMA Form 8660-6, "DMA 9-Track Digital Product Request," for ordering DMA digital products. The TEAM must comply with OPNAVINST 3140.55, "Submission of Requirements for Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy Products and Services," as well.

Unique Service Requirements. DMA Instruction 5000.56, "Programming Unique Mapping, Charting and Geodesy Requirements for Developing Systems," implements DoD policy on interoperability and prescribes procedures for reimbursing DMA to satisfy an emerging system requirement when it is unique to one Service. It also states that the ORD is the authoritative source document for MC&G developmental requirements.

Commercial Satellite Imagery. DMA Handbook 8290.2, "Handbook for Ordering Commercial Land Remote Sensing Satellite Data by the Department of Defense," tells you how to place orders with DMA for unclassified photographic and digital imagery from systems such as Landsat and SPOT.

List of DMA Products. DMA List 805-1A, "DMA List of Products and Services" is a basic reference for identifying (but not ordering) products and services available through DMA including some under development. It contains detailed descriptions and other useful summary information. Highly recommended.

Digital Production System. "The DMA Digital Production System Handbook," written in February, 1995, explains integration of this new digital system into existing DMA analog production processes to improve DMA mission capability significantly. The $2.8 billion MPS contains more than seven million lines of software code. It represents the leading edge of complex MC&G technology in the world.

Geodesy. DMA Technical Report 80-003, "Geodesy For the Layman," presents the basics of geodesy in elementary form – elementary being a relative term. TEAM members interested in target location error, precise coordinates, or datums need this enduring classic.

WGS 84. DMA Technical Report 8350.2, "Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984: Its Definition and Relationships With Local Geodetic Systems," 2nd Edition, defines the DMA geometric, geodetic, and gravitational models of the earth. The report describes a data base of evenly spaced WGS 84 geoid heights worldwide, software to interpolate geoid heights at any location, and a global contour map of geoid heights, all available from DMA. Included on the inside back cover of this report is an MS-DOS diskette containing Mapping Datum Transformation (MADTRAN) software for coordinate conversion and datum transformation of 115 datums to or from WGS 84. Input and output are in geodetic, UTM, or MGRS coordinates. MADTRAN is easy to use and comes with soft copy instructions and internally documented source code. Insert 1 to this technical report came out 30 August 1993. A classified supplement also is available.

A related document, MIL-STD-2401, "Department of Defense World Geodetic System," specifies DoD requirements for using WGS 84. It requires system developers to obtain the latest transformation parameters from DMA when developing new or upgraded systems that do transformation. DMA parameters are the only ones authorized. Developers must design systems that use datum transformations to accept new or changed parameters and datums between software upgrades.

MGRS and UTM Grid Systems. Developers who want to display precise coordinates, convert from one coordinate reference system to another, or transform datums in cockpits absolutely need two authoritative manuals: DMA Technical Manual 8358.1, "Datums, Ellipsoids, Grids and Grid Reference Systems," and DMA Technical Manual 8358.2, "The Universal Grids: Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) and Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS)." The manuals are difficult to use and under revision for easier application by system developers and contractors. These problems are inherently and deceptively complex, especially when applied to flight operations. Contact your MC&G Team as early as possible in development to avoid some classic, known pitfalls.

Positional Accuracy. DMA Technical Report 8400.1, "Error Theory as Applied to Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy," is a 1991 remake of the classic "User’s Guide to Understanding Chart and Geodetic Accuracies" (ACIC Reference Publication 28) written for cartographers in 1971. This report is basic reading for developers who need to understand MC&G positional accuracy and its precise terminology. A related reference is MIL-STD-600001, "Mapping, Charting & Geodetic Accuracy."

Reporting Position Coordinates. CJCS Instruction 3900.01, "Position Reference Procedures," establishes operational policy for unilateral, joint, and multinational use of position reference systems. It also provides specific procedures for reporting position coordinates, including GPS.

Coordinate Selection Guide. The DIA/DMA Coordinates Working Group produced this poster in 1988. Although dated by the absence of GPS information, it is still a clear, concise, and valuable reference on the comparative accuracy of target coordinate sources. Every PEO and PMA should have a copy on the wall. It’s an easy way to get conversant in targeting terminology.

Digitizing The Future. This is an executive level document developed by DMA in direct partnership with warfighters, contractors, and other Federal agencies. It describes DMA standard digital products and data bases, prototype products, software, and special related subjects such as digital data structures. Very popular and highly recommended.

The DMA MCGrapher. This quarterly DMA newsletter, mostly about the status of products and services in development, is free and available to anyone, including contractors. It includes a Standardization Report to relay the status of MC&G related MIL-SPECS, MIL-STDS, and MIL-HDBKS available and in work.

4. Other Sources.

"Your Target Is…." This 1991 unclassified 20 minute video, a cooperative effort between DMA and DIA, is a logical companion to the Coordinate Selection Guide poster. It is available from DIA in VHS and 3/4 inch U-matic formats.

"Impact of GPS and Targeting Errors on GPS Equipped Attack Weapons." This technical, but unclassified, 16 minute video is a product of the Naval Air Warfare Center dated July 1993. It comes in VHS format only and includes a 31 page reference handout.

"On a True Course." The Defense Mapping School produced this unclassified 15 minute VHS video in November 1993. It describes the training available from DMS and shows some clear interoperable examples of MC&G applications.

5. DMA Catalogs. The DMA Catalog contains the stock numbers you need to order products. It comes in seven separate parts, all notoriously hard to use. DMA has a major fix underway. If you need help meanwhile, call your MC&G Team in Air-4.5 or call DMA Customer Assistance at 1-800-826-0342 [DSN 287-2495].

6. DMA Software. DMA produces general purpose utility software to standardize the examination of MC&G digital data. This software will not perform analytical applications unique to NAVAIR needs.

MUSE 1.0. Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy Utility Software Environment (MUSE) is DMA’s initial effort, with the help of NRL and Naval Command Control and Ocean Surveillance Center, to develop standard software to exploit DMA raster and vector digital products across different hardware platforms and operating systems. MUSE comes on CD-ROM, includes source code, and will run on Macintosh, MS-DOS, Windows, and Sun UNIX platforms. Basic exploitation includes the capability to import, annotate, and simultaneously display different vector and raster products (such as DTED, DNC, CIB, DAFIF, and WVS) fused together over the same area. MUSE includes a soft copy user manual and sample data sets of ADRG, CAC, CADRG, ADRI, DTED, DBDB, and DCW. You can order a hard copy manual separately. Other applications in MUSE include line of sight analysis, 3-D perspective scene analysis, and software for datum transformation and coordinate conversion between two specified geodetic systems.

VPFVIEW. VPFVIEW will use any present and future DMA MC&G data base implemented in Vector Product Format. You can select data for display by region, feature, or group of related features. You don’t have to load or convert the data: simply read it directly from the media (CD-ROM, hard drive, diskette). It is not a Geographic Information System (GIS), so it has no analytical capability other than viewing and zooming sets of features. It will send display and text to a printer or plotter. VPFVIEW supports MS-DOS, PC-DOS, and Sun UNIX operating systems and contains executable and source code plus a user manual.

1. Off Site. The Defense Mapping School (DMS) resides at Ft. Belvoir, 15 miles south of Washington, DC. DMS develops all its training literature and helps the Services develop MC&G related doctrine, training materials and courses. DMS has academic accreditation. DMS deploys Mobile Training Teams (MTT) to deliver standard and tailored MC&G training in the field. This training costs your command nothing; it is free for the asking. In FY94, DMS traveled to 34 locations and delivered seven different courses to 2,000 students.

2. On Site. DMS offers the following courses at Ft. Belvoir:

MC&G Staff Officer Course (a one week basic course);

MC&G for the Warrior (one or two days depending on customer needs);

Geographic Information Systems (two weeks of theory and hands on);

Introduction to Remotely Sensed Imagery (two weeks);

Introduction to Remotely Sensed Imagery and Geographic Information Systems (a one week course combing RSI and GIS);

Global Positioning System for the Warrior (a one day look at military applications and examples, including a discussion of future GPS capabilities);

and other formal training customized to your needs.

Whenever you need it, the MC&G Team in Air-4.5 lectures on MC&G subjects (for example, Target Location Error) at your routine staff meetings, technical meetings, and training sessions. They also arrange for DMA subject matter experts to lecture.

1. At The DMA Hydrographic/Topographic Center. DMAHTC routinely hosts warfighters, developers, and senior DoD officials for custom briefings and tours of their production facility in Bethesda, Maryland. This includes traditional nautical charting processes and digital production.

2. At The DMA Combat Support Center. DMACSC is the ordering and distribution part of DMA. They offer a half day tour and briefing on their key processes: requisition processing, issuance and shipping, customer assistance, inventory management, receipt and storage. They also discuss the improvements under way to make it easier to get DMA products. Very informative and well done.

3. At The DMA Warrior Support Center. The purpose of the Warrior Support Center is to orient DoD warfighters to new and emerging MC&G products and services. Their joint officer staff regularly demonstrates the latest MC&G capabilities in their facility at Headquarters, DMA.

4. On Site Deployment. The Warrior Support Center also deploys their demonstrations of DMA digital products to field activities and, in some cases, will leave sample products with you. This is a highly recommended way for TEAM field activities to stay current with MC&G digital developments and is free to the asking command.

5. In Air-4.5. Your MC&G Team can demonstrate many DMA products with their own 486 PC and Macintosh systems. Call or drop by for a quick introduction.

6. On Your Desktop. If you have personal computer and a CD-ROM reader, you can view many DMA digital products in your office. For example Digital Chart of the World is available complete with software. Prototypes and sample CD-ROMs come with VPFVIEW for displaying the data. MUSE provides some analytical capability.

DMA stocks over 185 million copies of 66,000 different products and maintains over 16,000 subscription accounts. In addition, warfighters, system developers, and contractors submit about 12,000 separate orders per month. DMA satisfies customer requests with no transportation assets of its own and must depend on external carriers to ship your order.

1. Basic Information. You need a DoD Activity Address Code (DoDAAC) to order MC&G products or subscribe to products routinely on automatic distribution. (The DoDAAC connects to the official clear text address of a DoD activity.) You also need to know with some precision what product you want (its DMA stock number), if it’s available, how many of them you need, and by when. Finally, you need to know the priority.

DoDAAC. Navy DoDAACs start with either an N, V, or R followed by the 5 digit Unit Identification Code (UIC). Commands use the UIC to handle all incoming requisitions, bills, and supplies. The TEAM DoDAAC account number is N00019. Don’t use this command number to order DMA products.

Administrative DoDAAC Account for MC&G. DMA products requisitioned by the TEAM are free; therefore, use an administrative DoDAAC account to order MC&G products. The administrative DoDAAC account number for the MC&G Team is N76000. All products ordered under N76000 go to Air-4.5M. If you need your own administrative DoDAAC account for local delivery, you must request it in writing to the Defense Finance and Accounting Service.

Temporary DoDAAC Account. DMA no longer allows temporary accounts. They deleted all TEAM DoDAAC accounts that begin with T.

Priority. DMA is changing and improving the priority system at customer request. TEAM members should ignore the priority instructions in the DMA Catalogs and use priority 09 when ordering. DMA is now filling 96% of all orders within one day.

Automatic Distribution. You can set up a subscription to your account if you want predetermined quantities of new or revised products automatically. This makes sense for products like Flight Information Publications (FLIPs), revised in part every 28 days. Submit your request for automatic distribution through the MC&G Team to DMA Combat Support Center. If you want a current copy of the product right away, ask for automatic distribution and initial issue; otherwise, you may wait some time before the first delivery arrives.

Then What Happens? After receipt, DMA will either ship your order, put all or part of it on backorder, or reject your order because of restricted product releaseability, product quantity limit, or because of incorrect information (such as the wrong stock number, account number, or format error).

Returning Stuff. Before sending anything back, call DMA Customer Assistance. It’s usually not economical to return it. Dispose of products according to your local security and salvage directives.

2. Routine Ordering. You can use DMA GETAMAP software to submit orders if you have an MS-DOS machine. GETAMAP allows you to submit orders via message or correspondence. It originated in 1987 and now 60% of all orders use it. GETAMAP gives you an easy step by step ordering method that reduces time and delay. It has some idiosyncrasies and doesn’t work with all products. In addition, TEAM orders for digital products must follow OPNAVINST 3140.55. Your MC&G Team can advise you.

Via AUTODIN. The AUTODIN message is the most popular way to order MC&G products today. You can use GETAMAP to create the .ORD file and then import it into Message Text Format (MTF). You can also use GETAMAP to create a Military Standard Requisitioning and Issue Procedure (MILSTRIP). This is useful if the requester address and the supplementary ("ship to") address are different.

Via DAMES. DMA Combat Support Center prefers you use DMA GETAMAP software and DAMES (the Defense Automatic Addressing System Center Automated Message Exchange System) to submit orders for MC&G products. DAMES is an MS-DOS software package that lets you send and receive requisition transactions and narrative messages within the DoD logistics system using the Defense Automatic Addressing System (DAAS). DAAS automatically forwards your order to DMA Combat Support Center reducing the time between submission and receipt of your order. DAAS tracks the customer when deployed even if the requisition occurred before deployment. You can use DAMES at any time. It’s great for TEAM activities without AUTODIN or Defense Data Network (DDN) capability. It is user friendly, menu driven, and free to the TEAM and its contractors. The software contains complete instructions. You will need to complete their questionnaire and registration form to get properly loaded in the DAASC data base. You will need a modem and a dedicated telephone circuit.

Via Correspondence. DMA also handles about 125 pieces of routine correspondence each month for those without message capability, so you may also send a normal letter through channels specifying your DoDAAC and the products you want by stock number, how many, the priority, and when needed. They also accept DMA Form 8660-6, "DMA 9-Track Digital Product Request," and facsimile transmissions. Having no other recourse, you can use GETAMAP to create the .ORD file. Copy the order file to a 5 1/4 inch, double sided, double density, 360 KB floppy diskette, put your account number on the floppy, and mail it to DMACSC. They will return it to you.

3. Not So Routine Ordering.

Crisis. In a crisis, the usual rules go out the window. DMA products and services are no good unless the warfighter gets exactly the products needed on time, every time. If necessary, DMA will ship your order by Federal Express.

Local Foot Power. Are you in the Washington, DC metro area? Are you desperate for small quantities of paper products? Does your desperation surface only between 0730 and 1600, Monday through Friday? If so, you have another choice:

4. Voice Customer Assistance. DMA Customer Assistance is available to help you prepare your order once you have the basic information assembled. They handle over 2,500 routine and emergency requests for assistance every month by telephone. When calling after DMA business hours, don’t hang up; they have voice mail and will return your call within 24 hours.

If you know what you want, but can’t find a stock number, call them. They are experts on the latest ordering short cuts. They will also research the status of your order and reinitiate shipment of missing items if necessary. For technical questions beyond their expertise, they will refer you to the appropriate DMA subject matter specialist who, by the way, may be on your Air-4.5 MC&G Team.

5. Ordering For The TEAM. The METOC Officer orders DMA products for contractors to support testing, system integration, and demonstrations once they are approved by the sponsoring PMA. In emergencies, contact the METOC Officer directly.

1. Some History. MC&G is becoming increasingly critical to advanced weapon system development. Ironically, accuracy improvements in weapon systems created new, unanticipated MC&G problems.

After a 1993 deployment, a Carrier Air Wing cruise debriefing (eventually given to CNO) cited the following map and targeting problems: "90% of world not mapped," "GPS target coordinates as much as 6 kilometers in error," and "maps were dated 1943 with 1991 overprinted information." During operations, the warfighters did not seek assistance from DMA. It turns out that the shooters got incorrect target coordinates from the principal intelligence organization for the theater. If you think this was an isolated incident, it wasn’t. This happens too often and it’s happening more frequently. And it’s not a problem unique to the Navy.

In Operation Desert Storm, B-52s missed targets because they initialized their INS at Diego Garcia on a different datum from the one used to reference the target location. The datum shift exactly equaled the miss direction and distance. To add further confusion, 11 different datums covered the theater of operations.

In Lebanon, naval gunfire from the USS New Jersey used WGS 72 coordinates while Marines ashore used European Datum coordinates!

Sadly, these are only a few examples of what is increasingly likely to happen if shooters and developers are uninformed about how MC&G can greatly influence the outcome of their efforts. This handbook section may be your wake up call.

2. The Shape Of Our Earth. MC&G concerns three different surfaces of the earth: the actual physical or natural surface traditionally mapped for warfighters; a smooth mathematically defined surface called the ellipsoid; and the decidedly unsmooth equipotential surface of gravity known as the geoid. These surfaces are not the same. They have different coordinates for the same place! If that’s not confusing enough, consider the warfighter finding that place, measuring distances and heights, and reporting this information. The warfighter has a different problem that requires another frame of reference called a datum. And – you guessed it – different datums also have different coordinates for the same place! Now you begin to see how MC&G can make or break a mission. Does this have anything to do with developers building better systems to put bombs on target? You bet it does!

For one thing, determining accurate elevation is now more important than ever for successful weapons delivery. Warfighters use height information in several varieties: barometric altitude (referenced to atmospheric pressure); MSL elevation, AGL elevation, radar altitude, contour values and spot elevations (all related to the mapped surface); geoid height (related to the bumpy, undulating physical model of the world’s gravity); and the ellipsoid height (based on the smooth geometric model of earth). All of these have different inherent accuracies. Precise height information derives from a complicated set of assumptions and standards which developers and warfighters need to understand.

Consider good old Mean Sea Level (MSL) and the new kid on the block, GPS. Traditionally, MSL has been the zero height for our vertical datum. It’s called mean sea level based on the average rise and fall of tides over about 18.6 years of measuring (the length of the sun and moon cycles that influences tides). Each tide gauge was used to define a particular local vertical datum. At the time, there was no reason to tie in the local horizontal datum. In the recent past MSL was good enough, but scientists now know that MSL (the surface of the sea) is not level everywhere. The water conforms to the equipotential surface of constant gravity – the geoid, our gravity model of the earth. Better height measurements from satellite radar altimetry using the Earth’s center of mass as the point of origin verified that MSL is a poor approximation of the geoid surface for the current needs of DoD. Contrary to common sense, water does not seek the same level, globally speaking, because of major gravity variations around the world. Typically, GPS receivers display elevation data referenced to the ellipsoid, not the geoid. So, you could find yourself in port in a geoid valley beneath the smooth surface of the ellipsoid model, and your GPS receiver will say the sea level is minus some number of meters, and it will be correct!

If no better source is available, DMA estimates local elevations using the height above the WGS 84 reference ellipsoid and the separation between the ellipsoid and the geoid. DMA assumes this difference is equal to MSL. No world vertical system is defined today to unify and tie together local vertical datums so DMA can’t resolve the differences between them. However, DMA and NASA are improving the Earth Gravity Model with satellite measurements and new surface gravity data collected in the last ten years. They will use this information to construct a new worldwide grid of geoid heights referenced to the WGS 84 ellipsoid. This will directly improve vertical accuracy and consistency.

3. Projections and Scales. Representing the curved surface of the earth on the flatlands of paper has no ideal solution. Mathematical projections accomplish this physical representation much like projecting light from a three-dimensional object onto a two-dimensional surface. The projection is the most practical and intelligent solution to this impossible problem. Still, projections unavoidably cause distortions to the truth of various kinds and magnitudes. No projection can show true directions, true distances, true areas, and true shapes simultaneously. Therefore, projections optimize some aspect of mapped information at the expense of other information. For example, the gnomonic projection (the oldest of them all) optimizes great circle information as straight lines while compromising shape and positional accuracy.

On all maps, scale varies to some degree from place to place. Scale variation depends on the projection used. Scale is often crucial to a product’s usefulness for a warfighter’s given purpose. It is the size ratio between that seen in the flatlands of maps compared with actual size in the real world. Therefore, a 1:250,000 scale chart means that the ratio of map measures to measures in the real world is one to 250,000. This translates to 1 inch (or other unit) on the map equaling 250,000 inches (or other unit) in the real world. The smaller the scale (1:1,000,000 is smaller than 1:250,000), the larger the area in the real world that the corresponding area on the chart represents. Small scale = large area and large scale = small area.

Paper product scale and digital data resolution have a conceptual relationship. Each is a controlling factor that determines the minimum spatial separation between features. For example, the 1:250,000 Joint Operations Graphic is equivalent in resolution to DTED Level 1 and DFAD Level 1 based on comparable spatial separation. However, remember that high resolution is different from high accuracy. DMA’s Urban Vector Smart Map (UVMap) will contain a wealth of detail suitable for intelligence use, but the geodetic accuracy of the source renders it useless for targeting applications.

The warfighter can display a vector data file at any scale and selectively suppress its feature content. In the digital realm, scale loses its rigor and no longer limits the number and kind of features shown or the richness of spatial detail and feature attributes. For vector products, DMA subjectively estimates the digital product density in terms of an existing map’s fixed scale. For example, Vector Smart Map Level 0 (VMap 0) under development equates to a 1:1,000,000 paper product.

The DMA accuracy for paper charts meets the National Map Accuracy Standard, originally based on human limitations in manually plotting added information on charts. For charts at 1:20,000 and smaller scales, 90% of all well-defined features (those not subject to generalization or displacement) are within 1 mm of their actual location. Note that this accuracy depends on the scale of the product. For example, a 1 mm plotting error on a 1:250,000 Joint Operations Graphic (JOG) is 250,000 mm or 250 meters on the ground. In other words, the ubiquitous .5 mm government mechanical pencil line is 125 meters wide!

In addition, the scale of a paper map forces cartographers to generalize and even move selected information on the map to preserve clarity. The inaccuracies associated with map generalization and displacement are no longer acceptable for new weapon systems.

For digital displays of MC&G data, the same rules about projections and scales apply. The scale of the display is deceptive because it varies as the operator zooms in and out. The system may or may not tell the operator as the scale factor changes. Raster data scanned from existing maps preserves the original scale and projection limitations as you zoom in and out.

Displayed vector data minimizes traditional projection problems for the warfighter. The data displayed at the moment uses a projection optimized for the location in view rather than using a constant projection required for an entire map sheet. The positional accuracy of the displayed data is consistent and will not vary by location to the degree it would on a map. The digital data will always appear seamless along the display edges. The age-old problem of trying to match map sheets together exactly vanishes with a digital display.

4. Images And Maps. They say that one picture is worth a thousand words. That’s probably true in the world of intelligence, but not necessarily true in mapping. How so? Warfighters use maps and map information like images to locate, to describe, to visualize the unseen, to relate things to each other in space, and to bring meaningful awareness to an unfamiliar area. Maps do this more accurately than mere images. Warfighters reliably know distances, directions, positions, elevations, sizes, and positions on DMA maps because the mapping process relates these measures to precisely known locations. You may know this process as registration, ground control, triangulation, or its new digital synonym, geocoding. This is what turns an intelligence photo into an MC&G product. In addition, DMA maps are orthorectified. This process removes all perspective viewpoints (like those seen by a camera or with your unaided eyes). The result is a planimetric (or plan) view from directly over every point on the map. Orthorectification makes map measurement rapid and easy, greatly easing the burden of the warfighter. Now, if you’re wondering what would happen if DMA geocoded and orthorectified the original photo and skipped the map making altogether, then you’re ready to read about some hot, new DMA products in development – Controlled Image Base (CIB) and Digital Point Positioning Data Base (DPPDB) – in the next section!

5. Color Accuracy. Digital maps are new to warfighters. Based on tradition and experience, they expect digital maps, particularly those in raster format, to look like paper ones. Our visible spectrum contains millions of colors. The range of colors (the color gamut) that printed maps can reproduce is different from the color gamut for cockpit displays. The gamuts for these media are much smaller than the gamut for the human eye, so the three will never agree. In addition, subjective factors subtly distort our color perception. Lighting, adjacent colors, and other environmental factors have an influence. Displays and printers also use different technical models to describe color because of the different ways they manipulate light. The display creates transparent color on a monitor with a black absorbing surface, while the printer creates opaque color on a white, reflecting surface. This makes it very difficult to recreate, for example, the map’s thin black lines on the display. Absolute color "fidelity" for the warfighter is an impossible requirement. Developers, instead, should maintain relative color balance in the display so that, for example, green woodlands remain visually distinct from brown contour lines.

6. Coordinate Reference Systems. Coordinate reference systems are shorthand means of communicating locations on the earth’s surface. A coordinate reference system always connects to a datum that defines its reference frame and point of origin. You must always know the datum because the datum can change. When the datum changes, so do the coordinates of the position! In other words, all coordinate reference systems give different values for the same location depending on the reference datum used. So, to pass a coordinate position to another person you must also pass the datum. If the recipient is working with a different datum, someone must convert the coordinates.

The most familiar coordinate reference system is latitude, longitude, and elevation. Others include the two-dimensional Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) and Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) grid systems. Simply put, DMA overprints these rectangular grids on maps to identify a location in rectangular coordinates – without converging meridians or the lengthy description of degrees, minutes, and seconds of latitude and longitude. They also simplify distance measurement. Grid units are always meters. The Military Grid Reference System (MGRS) is an alphanumeric shorthand for expressing UTM and UPS coordinates with fewer numbers. The basis for MGRS is the 100,000 meter grid square two letter identifier.

7. Measures Of Accuracy. The accuracy measures provided with MC&G paper products or digital data define the warrior’s envelope of reliable use. MC&G data cannot be any more accurate than its original source, and sources vary in accuracy. In addition, each step in the process can introduce errors due to limitations of the production hardware and software, human factors, and the inherent characteristics of the product itself (such as the size and scale of the chart or the specification accuracy for digital data). These typically show up as errors in position or elevation.

Statistical techniques measure and identify these errors. These measures convey a confidence level to the warrior for the probable accuracy of a DMA product. Accuracy tells the warrior how close the measurement comes to a known higher standard assumed to be the truth, such as the WGS 84 system. DMA usually describes MC&G product accuracies in absolute or relative accuracy, or both, depending on the product’s intended use. Absolute accuracy tells how close each feature or data point is to the specified higher standard. Absolute accuracy includes all random and systematic errors. Relative accuracy tells how close the measured distance or elevation is between two features or data points over a specified distance within the standard. Relative Accuracy includes only random errors. DMA traditionally measures MC&G position accuracy in feet or meters of Linear Error (LE) for heights, and feet or meters of Circular Error (CE) for horizontal position, both at 90% probability.

GPS, JDAM, JSOW, and Tomahawk all use circular measures of absolute and relative accuracy at 50% probability that reflect the intended uses of these systems. The 50 percent Circular Error Probable (CEP) figure is the radius of a circle around the target within which 50% of the weapons should fall. The remaining 50% fall outside the CEP. The Spherical Error Probable (SEP) is a three-dimensional combination of horizontal and vertical errors at 50% probability.

Target Location Error (TLE) is the difference between the actual location of the target and the expected location. In preplanned missions, DMA product accuracy is a major component of TLE. Understanding and predicting TLE is particularly crucial to autonomous weapons development because of low CEP objectives.

The total overall error is a statistical combination of TLE and the errors associated with the weapon (e.g., INS, GPS, aircraft, and aviator).

The specification states DMA product accuracy objectives; however, individual products produced according to the specification will vary in accuracy. For example, the DTED Level 1 product specification states an absolute horizontal accuracy of 50 meters at 90% probability and an absolute vertical accuracy of 30 meters at 90%. This means that 90% of the terrain elevations will be no worse than 50 meters from their true location and within ±30 meters vertically of their true elevation. It also means that most of them will be better!

Because of the way DMA processes source information, the location, elevation, and accuracy of each digital data point is independent of any other data point. This means that increasing the density of data points in the data base will not improve the accuracy of positional information in the data base.

Nor can you create greater accuracy by expanding the display scale of digital MC&G data captured at another scale. Magnifying a raster data file on the screen does not add accuracy or information content although feature detail may be easier to distinguish. After compression, you can’t restore a digital raster file to its original accuracy or content. For example, data from a 24 bit file of up to 16 million colors scanned at 100 microns, compressed to an 8 bit file of just 256 colors, yields new pixels now degraded to 200 microns.

8. Accuracy Versus Precision.

You must accurately know the target location to hit it. That is DMA’s job. A precise weapon is the developer’s job.

An accurate and precise weapon system is a team effort between the developer and DMA.

9. Pseudo Accuracy. A related problem arises from our unquestioning assumptions about high technology. DoD plans to buy up to 95,000 Precise Lightweight Geopositional Receivers (PLGR) at $1,300 each for a diversity of applications. PLGR is hand held and weighs 2.75 pounds. It can receive both levels of GPS accuracy, the best accuracy being 16 meters SEP (50%). However, PLGR can display coordinates in whole degrees, whole minutes, and seconds to two decimal places. Trigonometry tells us that .01 arc seconds of latitude is equal to about 31 centimeters on the earth. When you are using WVS for mission planning, remember it has a specification accuracy no better than 500 meters (or 50,000 centimeters) no matter what the displayed precision of the coordinates suggests! The moral of these examples is that display precision can mislead warfighters about source data accuracy.

10. Datums. In the past warfighters didn’t worry much about datums. Older datums were acceptably accurate only within a particular local geographic region, like Europe or North America, because of the earth’s imperfect shape. Now DoD weapon systems need precise, highly accurate datums and the equally accurate coordinates that come from them. An in-depth understanding of datums is essential. A lack of understanding could easily cause mission failure!

A datum is a math model of the Earth’s shape used as a basic reference to calculate position coordinates, heights, and distances, and also to make maps. The datum is the origin or point of reference.

Hundreds of different datums exist worldwide. Consider them all "apples and oranges." Always talk about the same datum when communicating. Precise target locations depend on it.

11. WGS 84. World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84) is the official DoD positional reference system. (WGS 84 replaces its predecessor systems WGS 60, WGS 66, and WGS 72.) WGS 84 is a unified earth-centered model of the globe based on improved geometric, geodetic, and gravity information. WGS 84 relates positions on those other datums to a single interoperable standard. Some older datums have lost their accuracy, some because plate tectonic activity has physically moved permanent survey marks once precisely placed! DMA continues to update the constants needed to transform between one datum and another and to derive new constants when necessary. Excluding the datums already tied to WGS 84, several hundred other obscure ones exist that don’t have transformation constants.

Some deployed weapon systems have hard wired specific or nonstandard datums that are less accurate than WGS 84. For example, the B-1B has avionics hard wired to WGS 72. Early models of the F-15 had systems referenced to North American Datum 1927. Early models of the F-16 referenced the European Datum (their expected area of operation). The UH-60 and the AH-64 reference six ellipsoids and not WGS at all. Unfortunately, no one explained this to the aviators in their flight manuals and there are no plans to retrofit.

In Korea, the current local datum is the Tokyo Datum. The datum shift to WGS 84 in this area averages about 750 meters!

Many existing DMA paper products are still in distribution (mostly reprints and maps made by foreign countries) that are not on WGS 84.

12. Datum Transformation and Coordinate Conversion. Errors accumulate every time you transform from one datum or grid to another, even if using DMA-approved MADTRAN software. The WGS 84 technical report is the authoritative source for these transformation constants.

13. The Global Positioning System. Any DoD weapon system using GPS, or in development to use GPS, will require MC&G combat support from DMA, directly or indirectly. Why? Because GPS is the DoD standard navigation system. It provides a common, highly precise spatial reference to warfighters continuously in real time anywhere in the world. And the GPS reference frame is WGS 84. GPS supplies three-dimensional position, velocity, and time information in all weather.

GPS has profound applications for weapon guidance, bomb on coordinates, enroute navigation, mission planning, target acquisition, command and control, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) operations, search and rescue, photo reconnaissance, range instrumentation, and precise target locations.

GPS accuracy is usually better than maps by several orders of magnitude. The difference increases as map scale decreases. However, this is not to say that since warfighters now have GPS, they don’t need maps!

GPS provides two different levels of accuracy. With Precise Positioning Service, full accuracy is 10 meters CEP (50%) or 16 meters SEP (50%). (Note that 16 meters at 50% equates to a PLGR display accuracy no better than .5 arc seconds.) This encrypted signal limits access to DoD.

With Standard Positioning Service, the accuracy is 40 meters CEP (50%). This signal is primarily for the civil community, but DoD can downgrade it in a crisis. (Note that 40 meters at 50% equates to a PLGR display accuracy no better than one arc second.)

GPS receivers give warfighters the option to output elevations and coordinates on many grids and datums, including WGS 84. Just because they are "coordinates from GPS" do not assume they necessarily meet the GPS accuracy.

GPS goes in most of the Naval aviation fleet: EA-6B, SH-60D, SH-60F, C/KC-130, E-2C, E-6A, ES-3A, CH-53E, MH-53E, P-3C, EP-3, VH-60, and JPATS. The Miniature Airborne GPS Receiver (MAGR) goes in the AV-8B, F-14A/B, F-14D, F/A-18A/B, F/A-18C/D, F/A-18E/F, S-3B, and V-22A. The Embedded GPS Receiver (EGR) goes in the AH-1W.

The Standoff Land Attack Missile (SLAM) and Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) will have integrated GPS receivers. The Tomahawk Baseline Improvement Program (TBIP) will use a seeker and GPS. It will not need Digital Scene Mapping and Correlation (DSMAC) or Terrain Contour Matching (TERCOM).

JDAM will be a launch and leave autonomous weapon EGR coupled to an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU). The upgrade to JDAM will add a terminal seeker. JSOW will combine GPS with INS.

The Combat Survivor Evader Locator (CSEL) is a GPS receiver mated to a non-voice satellite communications radio. It reports your position automatically to SAR units when you are down behind enemy lines. CSEL eliminates visual searching or voice communications and their vulnerability to monitoring by the enemy. CSEL makes "Beam me up, Scotty" a near reality for those warfighters temporarily stranded with an unequal number of takeoffs and landings.

14. Precise Target Coordinate Sources. Not too long ago, maps were the basic frames of reference for position. There was nothing better. Now, maps and their raster derivatives are unsuitable for targeting! Does this mean give maps the heave ho? No. Just use them differently as the frame of reference for the more accurate GPS position.

Reliable target coordinates come only from a limited number of classified sources:

DMA Points Program. This is your source for the most accurate WGS 84 coordinates achievable. DMA accepts requests for precise positions via secure phone, secure fax, or classified message. DMA has to identify the target positively, so they will need from you a brief description, a line drawing or photo, coordinates for reference, and your authorized justification code. Routine requests take 30 days, but may be preempted by higher priority. In a crisis, however, turnaround is as quick as two hours. They give coordinates horizontal and vertical accuracy at 90% probability.

APPS. Navy users can derive their own precise positions using the Analytical Photogrammetric Positioning System (APPS) and hard copy PPDB imagery, even when deployed afloat. APPS requires a skilled operator. Digital PPDBs will begin to replace the hard copy in FY96. The Navy system to use DPPDB will be the Digital Image Workstation (DIWS).

WGIS Retrieval. The World Geodetic Information System (WGIS) is a PC software application developed by DMAAC and available to you. It allows you to retrieve previously mensurated precise positions from two classified data bases of published aim points. They are the World Aim Point Catalog (WAPC) and the North American Aim Point Catalog (NAPC). Warfighters can add additional aim points to these data bases. WGIS will also list the GNC, JNC, ONC, TPC, and JOG charts covering your aim points and all aim points in these data bases along your specified flight path or geographic area.

15. Complete Position Reporting. When reporting position coordinates from paper products JCS requires you also provide the datum, a description of the product (series, sheet number, edition, date), and who produced it. If you are reporting position coordinates derived from non-paper products such as the APPS and GPS receivers, JCS requires you provide the datum, who derived the coordinates, the method used, and the accuracy of the coordinates. And if you are, say, providing close air support, we know you’ll be sure you get the same information.

1. Sources Of Information.

Your MC&G Team in Air-4.5. System developers will benefit from routine contact with the DMA Liaison Officer and METOC Officer in Air-4.5. We are there to help you. We have authoritative information about the latest MC&G developments.

Navy/Marine Corps MC&G Working Group. N096 chairs this group. It meets about once a quarter to exchange timely information on relevant MC&G topics. It’s open to all members of the TEAM, including field activities, and contractors. Contact your MC&G Team in Air-4.5 to get on the meeting notification list.

MC&G Conference. This annual DoD MC&G conference is a forum for the principal MC&G officers from the Unified Commands, Services, and certain Federal agencies. They address MC&G issues, problems, and activities of mutual interest. The conference report summarizes presentations, discussions, new action items, and status of previous action items. "Report of the 1994 Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy Fall Conference," 12-14 October 1994, is a record of the last conference. The main conference is in the fall (usually at Ft. Belvoir), with a smaller one in the spring (usually at Headquarters, DMA). It’s the one place to go to find out all the latest stuff DMA is doing for the warfighter. Conference attendance is by invitation only. If you need to attend as a non-voting observer, see your DMA Liaison Officer. These conference reports have limited distribution, so contact your MC&G Team if you want to see one.

2. Another Peek At The Future. The explosion of commercial digital technology, new customer expectations, fiscal constraints, and revolutionary MC&G technical developments are forcing DMA to change. DMA is transforming itself from a product factory to a provider of information about the earth. GGI&S is the natural consequence of this explosion. GGI&S will collect, map, and distribute global geospatial information, and related services, and deliver them on-line from an electronic gateway with bulletin board access. This will allow customers, worldwide, to push or pull MC&G information on demand through Internet and Intelink. The information will be accurate, precise, current, and referenced to WGS 84 in a coherent structure that is part of the NSDI. The Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) will manage the data communications networks used by GGI&S. DMA customers of GGI&S – the warfighters of the future – will have unprecedented access to digital information that describes the earth in such detail that they can get equally unprecedented knowledge of battle spaces, any time, anywhere. GGI&S will assure the interoperability of joint weapon systems and reduce the cost of unique MC&G solutions. TEAM system developers will participate intimately in the creation of GGI&S. Six GGI&S pilot projects begin in FY95. The future of MC&G is GGI&S, plain and simple.

3. New DMA Initiatives. Many new DMA initiatives are in the works now that system developers need to know about in the near term.

•  More Accurate Targeting. GPS guided weapons, JDAM, JSOW, and Tomahawk (Block III, IV) will need enhanced positioning support. The near and long term accuracy objectives of DMA’s Precise Positioning Initiative allow aircraft and weapons to navigate more accurately than currently possible. Expect accomplishment of the near term objective in November 1995 and the long term objective in 1999-2000.

•  Faster Targeting. Near real-time distribution of precise point coordinates to warfighters is a DMA technical objective for FY00.

•  Synthetic Aperture Radar. DMA, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), and others are validating the Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR) system as a source for advanced MC&G capabilities.

•  Interoperable Map Software. DMA initiated the DoD Interoperable Map Software Program to develop and distribute software supporting standardized exploitation of geospatial data. DISA and DMA now coordinate the development of new general purpose and analytical software tools standardized for interoperability. In FY97, DMA will begin certifying reusable MC&G software for the Defense Software Repository System. By FY00, DMA will deliver a certified software package, the Joint Mapping Toolkit, to the Global Command and Control System (GCCS) for visual and analytical map capabilities and MC&G spatial database management.

•  GPS. COMSAT (Commercial Satellite) Augmented GPS (CAG) is under consideration for dual use, military and civilian. CAG will add GPS to commercial satellites in geosynchronous orbit to improve availability and vertical accuracy. CAG will be available for all users with an accuracy of 3-5 meters SEP, almost ILS Category 1 precision.

•  New Training Products. Defense Mapping School will produce a brochure and a video to help educate and explain problems associated with datums as well as a reference work on GPS modeled after the classic "Geodesy For the Layman." In addition, DMS is actively looking into interactive multimedia training and distance learning applications. At the request of warfighters they plan to offer a Coordinate Workshop to examine actual DoD targeting problems.

•  MC&G Distribution. DMA is integrating MC&G product distribution into the Defense Logistics Standards System to use fully its information and transportation assets. DMA will convert its stock numbers to National Stock Numbers (NSNs). This will allow warfighters to use their existing logistics systems and make it much easier to get DMA products.

•  Remote Replication System. DMA recently started a capability to use DMA digital data to print locally, on demand, a few near lithographic quality paper products using electrostatic printers. This will meet the quick response needs of planners during crisis while DMA prints and distributed conventional lithographic quantities. It prints 24 by 26 inch products at 60 copies per hour and 54 by 60 inch products at 12 copies per hour at $5-10 per copy depending on size. The Norfolk, Virginia test site is operational; however, the final hardware design probably won’t be suitable for extreme environments such as shipboard use.

•  Product Evaluation Handbook. This DMA publication will improve the formal process DMA uses to evaluate MC&G products for routine updating. The evaluation process is essentially a life cycle maintenance concept based on the intended uses of the products. DMA uses two criteria: the positional accuracy of the current product and the currency of product content. This publication tells system developers how often DMA plans to produce new editions of products and the existing MC&G products DMA will not maintain. Expect availability of this handbook in FY95.

•  New MC&G Standards. DMA has a Vector Product Format Standard, a Raster Product Format Standard, and a Text Product Format Standard in various stages of development.

-  Vector Product Format Development Program. VPF will provide a family of thematically organized digital data bases of low, medium, and high resolution. They will include such things as hydrography, shorelines, elevation, vegetation data, lines of transportation, aeronautical information, names data, and viewing software. The data format standardizes digitizing conventions, tiling, feature attribution, and feature coding. The standard medium will be CD-ROM. These data bases will support GIS analysis for command, control, and intelligence and also terrain analysis, mission planning and rehearsal, and modeling and simulation, and will support maritime navigation.

-  Raster Product Format Development Program. RPF will provide a family of digital products in a standardized format to support spatial referencing and background displays. Key considerations will be storage format, digitizing conventions, tiling schemes, spatial accuracy, and speed of display. Raster products will come from existing paper products and digital imagery. RPF data files will be fully compliant with the National Imagery Transmission Format (NITF) standard.

-  Text Product Format Development Program. This format closely follows the Continuous Acquisition and Life Cycle Support (CALS)/Standard Graphics Markup Language (SGML) industry standard. Text applications of interest to NAVAIR developers include a Digital Gazetteer and Digital CHUM for distribution electronically and on CD-ROM.

4. Developmental Products And Services. Here are some DMA MC&G products and services system developers can expect to work with in the future.

•  Improvements to WGS 84. DMA continuously updates and improves parameters for transforming local geodetic datums to WGS 84. DMA and NASA are improving the Earth Gravity Model (EGM) and the geoid. The geoid heights in WGS 84 currently have a one sigma error range of ±2 to ±6 meters. In mid 1996, DMA will define a new world height vertical reference standard for use in DoD systems development. The expected error range is less than one meter.

•  Unified Grid System. The DIA/DMA Coordinates Working Group is considering a Unified Grid System to resolve interoperability problems in the battle space caused by the current Military Grid Reference System (MGRS) and the UTM grid.

•  DFAD. Attributes of Digital Feature Analysis Data, DMA’s oldest digital feature product, is under evaluation for